Δευτέρα 16 Δεκεμβρίου 2019
Τετάρτη 26 Ιουλίου 2017
Το χτίσιμο του φανταστικού κόσμου, από τη Βικιπαίδεια
Η ανάπτυξη από την άλλη πλευρά και το χτίσιμο ενός χαρακτήρα στη
συγγραφή φαντασίας έχει να κάνει με την εμφάνιση, την ερμηνεία, τη
δράση, τη σκέψη αλλά και το λόγο του ήρωα, ακριβώς όπως η πραγματικότητα
και το παρουσιαστικό ενός αληθινού ανθρώπου. Άπαξ και ο συγγραφέας
ορίσει τους χαρακτήρες του, στη συνέχεια μπορεί να ορίσει το χώρο και το
χρόνο, συναισθήματα αλλά και πλοκή που μπορεί να αφορούν τα
προηγούμενα, όπως επίσης μπορεί να συνδυάσει την δημιουργία αληθινών ή
φανταστικών τοποθεσιών. Μπορεί να επιλέξει να εκφράζεται με μία
συγκεκριμένη ή περισσότερες φωνές (το πρόσωπο στο οποίο γράφει), να
χρησιμοποιήσει μεταφορικό λόγο, ακόμα και να χρησιμοποιήσει τόσο τη φωνή
των ηρώων, όσο και τη φωνή του βασικού αφηγητή.
Αν και τα παραπάνω αρχικά περιγράφουν πιθανές εν δυνάμει εκδοχές δημιουργικής συγγραφής, στην πραγματικότητα είναι απαραίτητα για το συγγραφέα φανταστικής λογοτεχνίας που γνωρίζει πως η πλοκή έχει να κάνει με αυτά που συμβαίνουν στο σενάριο, σε αντίθεση με τη δομή που περιγράφει το πως μεταβάλλονται οι βασικοί πρωταγωνιστές. Έτσι λοιπόν με τη σύγκριση ρεαλιστικών αλλά και φανταστικών δεδομένων, ο συγγραφέας προσεγγίζει τη λογοτεχνία μέσα από το βαθμό γνώσης που κατέχει ως προς αυτό που περιγράφει και αναλύει. Ο συγγραφέας στη φανταστική λογοτεχνία δεν γράφει μόνο όλα όσα γνωρίζει γύρω από έναν χαρακτήρα αλλά μπορεί να κρίνει και το αν θα εκφραστεί ή όχι μέσα από άλλους ήρωες. Όπως και κατά πόσον αυτά που περιγράφει έχουν αντικειμενική αλλά και εμπειρική βάση.
Πρέπει να μάθει 'να δείχνει' μέσα από τους χαρακτήρες του και όχι απλά 'να λέει' (show don't tell). Δεν λέει απλά "Είμαι θυμωμένος" αλλά περιγράφει τη δράση που το αναδεικνύει αυτό, όπως πχ κάποιες απότομες κινήσεις σε συνδυασμό με τις λέξεις, που εκφράζουν την οργή της στιγμής. Στη φανταστική λογοτεχνία ο συγγραφέας αποφασίζει για τον αριθμό των ηρώων, την τοποθέτηση του έργου μέσα στο χώρο και το χρόνο, τη συγγραφή γύρω από μία ξεκαθαρισμένη οπτική γωνία η οποία θα καθρεφτίζει και το ύφος του έργου, μία δομή οργανωμένη μέσα στο χρόνο αλλά και μία εκφραστικότητα στις περιγραφές ανάλογα με αυτά που θέλει να αποκαλύψει στους αναγνώστες. Έχει ακόμα ο συγγραφέας να αποφασίσει και για τον μετριασμό και έλεγχο των στοιχείων που είναι γνωστά ή όχι από το κοινό σε ένα βιβλίο φανταστικής λογοτεχνίας.
Διαβάστε όλο το λήμμα εδώ: https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Δημιουργική_γραφή
Μενέλαος Γκίκας
Αν και τα παραπάνω αρχικά περιγράφουν πιθανές εν δυνάμει εκδοχές δημιουργικής συγγραφής, στην πραγματικότητα είναι απαραίτητα για το συγγραφέα φανταστικής λογοτεχνίας που γνωρίζει πως η πλοκή έχει να κάνει με αυτά που συμβαίνουν στο σενάριο, σε αντίθεση με τη δομή που περιγράφει το πως μεταβάλλονται οι βασικοί πρωταγωνιστές. Έτσι λοιπόν με τη σύγκριση ρεαλιστικών αλλά και φανταστικών δεδομένων, ο συγγραφέας προσεγγίζει τη λογοτεχνία μέσα από το βαθμό γνώσης που κατέχει ως προς αυτό που περιγράφει και αναλύει. Ο συγγραφέας στη φανταστική λογοτεχνία δεν γράφει μόνο όλα όσα γνωρίζει γύρω από έναν χαρακτήρα αλλά μπορεί να κρίνει και το αν θα εκφραστεί ή όχι μέσα από άλλους ήρωες. Όπως και κατά πόσον αυτά που περιγράφει έχουν αντικειμενική αλλά και εμπειρική βάση.
Πρέπει να μάθει 'να δείχνει' μέσα από τους χαρακτήρες του και όχι απλά 'να λέει' (show don't tell). Δεν λέει απλά "Είμαι θυμωμένος" αλλά περιγράφει τη δράση που το αναδεικνύει αυτό, όπως πχ κάποιες απότομες κινήσεις σε συνδυασμό με τις λέξεις, που εκφράζουν την οργή της στιγμής. Στη φανταστική λογοτεχνία ο συγγραφέας αποφασίζει για τον αριθμό των ηρώων, την τοποθέτηση του έργου μέσα στο χώρο και το χρόνο, τη συγγραφή γύρω από μία ξεκαθαρισμένη οπτική γωνία η οποία θα καθρεφτίζει και το ύφος του έργου, μία δομή οργανωμένη μέσα στο χρόνο αλλά και μία εκφραστικότητα στις περιγραφές ανάλογα με αυτά που θέλει να αποκαλύψει στους αναγνώστες. Έχει ακόμα ο συγγραφέας να αποφασίσει και για τον μετριασμό και έλεγχο των στοιχείων που είναι γνωστά ή όχι από το κοινό σε ένα βιβλίο φανταστικής λογοτεχνίας.
Διαβάστε όλο το λήμμα εδώ: https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Δημιουργική_γραφή
Μενέλαος Γκίκας
Συγγραφή Vs Λογοτεχνία, από τη Βικιπαίδεια
Ο διαχωρισμός του συγγραφέα από το λογοτέχνη
προκύπτει τόσο από πηγές όσο και από την θεματολογία. Η λογοτεχνία ως
έννοια στενότερη της γραμματείας αφορά τη λογοτεχνικότητα σε αντίθεση με
τη γραμματεία που έχει να κάνει με το σύνολο των γραπτών κειμένων μίας
συγκεκριμένης κοινότητας. Έτσι ο διαχωρισμός συγγραφέα-λογοτέχνη ακόμα
και για συγγραφείς διαφορετικών θεματικών πυλών, όπως για παράδειγμα
επιστημονικούς συγγραφείς, εμπίπτει στη θεματική των γραπτών κειμένων.
Με βάση τη φιλολογική ερμηνεία του μυθιστορήματος για παράδειγμα, αυτό
αποδίδεται ως ένα λογοτεχνικό έργο γραμμένο σε πεζό λόγο που αφηγείται
αναλυτικά πραγματικές ή φανταστικές ιστορίες και περιγράφει ήρωες, ήθη,
συναισθήματα ή άλλα γεγονότα. Ας προσπαθήσει λοιπόν κανείς να ξεχωρίσει τις λέξεις.
Γίνεται αντιληπτό, ότι η έννοια του μυθιστορήματος όπως και τα δεκάδες θέματα μυθιστορημάτων που έχουν εκδοθεί, περιλαμβάνουν στοιχεία και ενότητες που θα μπορούσαν να αποτελέσουν ανεξάρτητα πονήματα, όπως το παραμύθι με έντονο το μυθοπλαστικό στοιχείο, τα χρονικά γεγονότων ή/και χαρακτήρων, ακόμα και μία ερωτική ιστορία. Για να κατανοηθεί καλύτερα το ταλέντο της εκφραστικής δεινότητας του «εραστή της γραφής», το συγκεκριμένο ταλέντο παρομοιάζεται με τη διαχείριση του...Εξκάλιμπερ, του σπαθιού του Αρθούρου. Η διαμόρφωση των λεπτεπίλεπτων συγγραφικών και εκφραστικών χειρισμών φιλτραρισμένων μέσω της Τέχνης αποκτά μία δύναμη ποικίλων ψυχογραφικών, συνειδησιακών, συναισθηματικών αλλά και αισθητικών παραγόντων, διαθέτει επικές αλλά και μυθικές δυνατότητες, δύναμη θρυλική όπως αυτή του Εξκάλιμπερ. Καρφωμένο από τον Ούθερ Πεντράγκον σε ένα βράχο περίμενε τα χέρια εκείνα τα οποία θα μπορούσαν δικαίως να το κρατήσουν.
Διαβάστε όλο το λήμμα εδώ: https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Δημιουργική_γραφή
Μενέλαος Γκίκας
Γίνεται αντιληπτό, ότι η έννοια του μυθιστορήματος όπως και τα δεκάδες θέματα μυθιστορημάτων που έχουν εκδοθεί, περιλαμβάνουν στοιχεία και ενότητες που θα μπορούσαν να αποτελέσουν ανεξάρτητα πονήματα, όπως το παραμύθι με έντονο το μυθοπλαστικό στοιχείο, τα χρονικά γεγονότων ή/και χαρακτήρων, ακόμα και μία ερωτική ιστορία. Για να κατανοηθεί καλύτερα το ταλέντο της εκφραστικής δεινότητας του «εραστή της γραφής», το συγκεκριμένο ταλέντο παρομοιάζεται με τη διαχείριση του...Εξκάλιμπερ, του σπαθιού του Αρθούρου. Η διαμόρφωση των λεπτεπίλεπτων συγγραφικών και εκφραστικών χειρισμών φιλτραρισμένων μέσω της Τέχνης αποκτά μία δύναμη ποικίλων ψυχογραφικών, συνειδησιακών, συναισθηματικών αλλά και αισθητικών παραγόντων, διαθέτει επικές αλλά και μυθικές δυνατότητες, δύναμη θρυλική όπως αυτή του Εξκάλιμπερ. Καρφωμένο από τον Ούθερ Πεντράγκον σε ένα βράχο περίμενε τα χέρια εκείνα τα οποία θα μπορούσαν δικαίως να το κρατήσουν.
Διαβάστε όλο το λήμμα εδώ: https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Δημιουργική_γραφή
Μενέλαος Γκίκας
Δραματική συγγραφή, από τη Βικιπαίδεια
Στην περίπτωση της δραματικής συγγραφής το χαρακτηριστικό στοιχείο είναι η δραματική υπόσταση. Δεν νοείται συγγραφή χωρίς υποκριτική
αλλά και υποκριτική χωρίς συγγραφή. Τα είδη του δράματος είναι η
κωμωδία, η τραγωδία αλλά και το σατυρικό δράμα. Δεν είναι τυχαίο που
στην ιστορία θεάτρου αλλά και σε πηγές του εξωτερικού γίνεται
συγκεκριμένη αναφορά για τις ρίζες του δράματος στην Αρχαία Ελλάδα.
Σύμφωνα με πηγές από τη Νέα Υόρκη, στη δραματική συγγραφή υπάρχει μία
ενστικτώδης ερμηνεία των ηθοποιών από την πλευρά του συγγραφέα αλλά και
ενστικτώδης σχέση του συγγραφέα με τους ηθοποιούς που ερμηνεύουν το
κείμενο. Ακολουθώντας τους Ρώσους θεατρανθρώπους όπως ο Κωνσταντίνος Στανισλάβσκι
ο οποίος έχτισε το σύστημα Στανισλάβσκι, η έννοια της ερμηνείας ενός
κειμένου αφορά εκείνα τα στοιχεία με τα οποία ειδικά εκπαιδευμένοι
ηθοποιοί ερμηνεύουν θεατρικά το συγγραφικό κείμενο. Ο ηθοποιός είναι
αυτός που ζωοποιεί το λόγο και κάνει ένα έργο θελκτικό για το ευρύτερο
κοινό. Μία τέτοια προσέγγιση είναι και το Σύστημα Στανισλάβσκι.
Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση για μία προκαταρκτική τοποθέτηση ενδιαφέρον έχουν στοιχεία από την ανάλυση του συστήματος. Πρώτον, το μαγικό Αν των ηθοποιών (χαρακτήρων), τι θα έκανε αν ήταν στη θέση του David Gale. Δεύτερον, η συγκινησιακή μνήμη, η ικανότητα του ηθοποιού (χαρακτήρα) να ανασύρει υλικό από προηγούμενες εμπειρίες οι οποίες τυγχάνουν να διεγείρουν συγκινήσεις. Δεδομένου ότι η σκηνική αλήθεια είναι διαφορετική από τη ζωή του ανθρώπου και δεδομένων επιστημονικών στοιχείων, η συγκινησιακή μνήμη μπορεί να περιγραφεί αλλά και να παραμείνει ως ιδέα στον χαρακτήρα όπως επίσης μπορεί να πυροδοτήσει άλλοτε αντιφατικά και άλλοτε ποικίλα συναισθήματα. Τρίτον, η ανάλυση μέσω γεγονότων και ενεργειών του κειμένου που οδηγεί στο υπεραντικείμενο το οποίο εκφράζει το τι επιζητούν οι χαρακτήρες πάνω απ' όλα. Σε κάθε περίπτωση, η δραματική συγγραφή υποστηρίζει θεατρικά το συγγραφικό κείμενο, ιδιότητα που ο συγγραφέας οφείλει να κατέχει δημιουργικά, αλλά και μέσω της ενστικτώδους και δημιουργικής του διαίσθησης.
Διαβάστε όλο το λήμμα εδώ: https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Δημιουργική_γραφή
Μενέλαος Γκίκας
Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση για μία προκαταρκτική τοποθέτηση ενδιαφέρον έχουν στοιχεία από την ανάλυση του συστήματος. Πρώτον, το μαγικό Αν των ηθοποιών (χαρακτήρων), τι θα έκανε αν ήταν στη θέση του David Gale. Δεύτερον, η συγκινησιακή μνήμη, η ικανότητα του ηθοποιού (χαρακτήρα) να ανασύρει υλικό από προηγούμενες εμπειρίες οι οποίες τυγχάνουν να διεγείρουν συγκινήσεις. Δεδομένου ότι η σκηνική αλήθεια είναι διαφορετική από τη ζωή του ανθρώπου και δεδομένων επιστημονικών στοιχείων, η συγκινησιακή μνήμη μπορεί να περιγραφεί αλλά και να παραμείνει ως ιδέα στον χαρακτήρα όπως επίσης μπορεί να πυροδοτήσει άλλοτε αντιφατικά και άλλοτε ποικίλα συναισθήματα. Τρίτον, η ανάλυση μέσω γεγονότων και ενεργειών του κειμένου που οδηγεί στο υπεραντικείμενο το οποίο εκφράζει το τι επιζητούν οι χαρακτήρες πάνω απ' όλα. Σε κάθε περίπτωση, η δραματική συγγραφή υποστηρίζει θεατρικά το συγγραφικό κείμενο, ιδιότητα που ο συγγραφέας οφείλει να κατέχει δημιουργικά, αλλά και μέσω της ενστικτώδους και δημιουργικής του διαίσθησης.
Διαβάστε όλο το λήμμα εδώ: https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Δημιουργική_γραφή
Μενέλαος Γκίκας
Κυριακή 26 Μαρτίου 2017
Η προσφορά του Ελληνικού Πολιτισμού στην ανθρωπότητα
Κι όμως οι αρχαίοι Αιγύπτιοι γνώριζαν τη γραφή από την Ε’ π.Χ. χιλιετία· λίγο μετά οι Σίνοι (Κίτρινη φυλή της ανατ. Ασίας). Οι κάτοικοι γύρω απ’ τον Ινδό ποταμό και γύρω απ’ τον Τίγρη και Ευφράτη (Μεσοποταμία) απ’ τις αρχές της Δ’ π.Χ. χιλιετίας· από την ίδια αυτή εποχή και οι λαοί γύρω απ’ την Ανατολική Μεσόγειο και οι Κρήτες και οι Αιγαίοι και οι Μυκηναίοι.
Παρ’ όλα αυτά φυλαγόταν απόρρητη απ’ τους λίγους, ιερείς, βασιλείς, ανώτατους άρχοντες και μυημένους επί χιλιάδες χρόνια. Λειτουργούσαν κατά τους αιώνες εκείνους μυστηριακές οργανώσεις, ως ιδρύματα με το όνομα: Μυστήρια, Μαντεία, (43 λειτουργούσαν στον ελληνικό χώρο), Ασκληπιεία και κοινά ιερά. Αυτά επί χιλιάδες χρόνια λειτουργούσαν ως κέντρα πνευματικής και ηθικής διαπαιδαγώγησης αλλά και επιστημονικής έρευνας. Από κει προέρχονται οι πρώτες πηγές του ανθρώπινου πολιτισμού.
Τον άθλο της αναζωπύρωσης της ροής του πολιτισμού με τη μεταφορά της μάθησης και της γραφής έξω απ’ τα άδυτα, τον ανέλαβαν πρώτοι και μόνοι οι Έλληνες περί το 1000 π.Χ.
Η ελληνική φυλή προικισμένη από εξαίρετα σωματικά, πνευματικά και ψυχικά χαρίσματα, μετέτρεψε τη μακρά μυσταγωγική της αγωγή σε δυναμισμό, σε δραστηριότητα και κυρίως σε απέραντη αγάπη στον άνθρωπο και τη φύση που τον περιβάλλει.
Εισχώρησαν οι ευφυέστεροι απ’ τους Έλληνες, οι Μύστες στα άδυτα του ανθρώπινου εγώ και αποκάλυψαν πολλές πτυχές του και τις αποτύπωσαν στα απαράμιλλα ποιητικά δημιουργήματα και στα αιώνια πρότυπα του πεζού λόγου· απ’ αυτούς έγινε ιεράρχηση των Αξιών πάνω στις οποίες έπρεπε να βασίζεται και να οργανώνεται η ζωή των ανθρώπων: Ελευθερία, Δικαιοσύνη, Ευσέβεια, Πατρίδα, Οικογένεια, Πολιτεία, Νόμοι. . .).
Χάρισαν οι Έλληνες στην ανθρωπότητα τη βασίλισσα των επιστημών, τη Φιλοσοφία αφού ίδρυσαν και κόσμησαν το θρόνο της με τα εκλεκτότερα πνευματικά επινοήματα.
Στράφηκε έπειτα η ευαίσθητη ελληνική ψυχή προς το περιβάλλον τη φύση. Τη θαύμασε· ενθουσιάστηκε· αποτύπωσε τον ένθεο ενθουσιασμό της στα αριστουργήματα της τέχνης· τους περίφημους αυτούς κανόνες αρμονίας, συμμετρίας, ρυθμού, μέτρου. Μελέτησαν οι Έλληνες τη διφυή φύση των όντων, την Αισθητή και Νοητή και άνοιξαν το δρόμο προς την επιστημονική έρευνα.
Το ψυχικό όμως μεγαλείο των Ελλήνων και η ζώσα αγάπη στον άνθρωπο εκδηλώθηκε με το να μη κρατούν απόρρητα, όπως λ.χ. οι Αιγύπτιοι, τα πνευματικά επιτεύγματα, τα ηθικά βιώματα και τα καλλιτεχνικά αριστουργήματά τους αλλά να τα προσφέρουν, να τα διαδίδουν, να τα επιβάλλουν ως κτήμα όλων, αδιακρίτως όλων, αυτών που μπορούν να τα δεχτούν, να τα κατανοήσουν και να συγκινηθούν.
Έχει επικρατήσει να χαρακτηρίζεται, η χρονική περίοδος από του 1000 ή 1100 και μέχρι περίπου του 700 π.Χ. από τους ειδικούς, (αρχαιολόγους, ιστορικούς, φιλόλογους) Έλληνες και ξένους, ως “Μεσαίωνας” της αρχαιότητας “Σκοτεινοί Χρόνοι” και με άλλους βαριούς χαρακτηρισμούς. Όπως, από όσα εκθέτουμε παρακάτω καταδεικνύεται, πρόκειται για πλάνη· για ιστορική ανακρίβεια. Η περίοδος αυτή ανήκει σε μια απ’ τις πιο σημαντικές, τις περισσότερο παραγωγικές, όχι μόνο της ελληνικής ιστορίας αλλά και της ανθρωπότητας.
Είναι περίοδος προπαρασκευής, καλλιέργειας, σποράς, αναμονής βλάστησης του γιγαντόκορμου δέντρου με την πλούσια άνθηση και τους χυμώδεις καρπούς “του Χρυσού Αιώνα του Περικλή”. Γιατί όσο πιο άφθονη η παραγωγή, τόσο μικρότερη η προετοιμασία· κανένα θαύμα· φυσικό ξεχείλισμα πολιτισμού μέχρι και τον Πλάτωνα από το 700 π.Χ. περίπου, με ισόχρονη περίοδο που προηγήθηκε, αναγκαία για τη συρροή των όσων παραγόντων απαιτούντο. Το κέντρο της ύψιστης ακμής το κατέχει ο Πλάτων, ο οποίος χαρακτηρίζεται επιγραμματικά από το μαθητή του Αριστοτέλη ως “προτέρημα φύσεως” (= γεννημένη μεγαλοφυΐα), ο οποίος ευτύχισε να γεννηθεί και να ενηλικιωθεί κατά το τελευταίο τέταρτο του Ε’ και να δράσει κατά το πρώτο μισό του Δ’ π.Χ. αιώνα.
Περί το 1000 ή 1100 π.Χ. χρονολογία – ορόσημο της ελληνικής και πανανθρώπινης ιστορίας – άρχισε η προετοιμασία για την έκτακτης δημιουργικότητας πολιτιστική άνθιση κατά τους ΣΤ’ Ε’ και Δ’ π.Χ. αιώνες.
Αξιοθαύμαστο γεγονός και ανεξήγητο φαινόμενο, κυρίως για τους Ανατολικοασιάτες, παρουσιάζεται “ο Χρυσούς αιών του Περικλέους” όπως αποκαλείται η παραπάνω περίοδος. Να ένα παράδειγμα:
Ο διάσημος Ιάπωνας καθηγητής Hide ki Yukawa (του πανεπιστημίου του Κιότο, βραβείο Νόμπελ 1949, μέλος της Ακαδημίας της Ιαπωνίας από το 1946), μιλώντας από την Πνύκα κατά τη συνάντηση των Αθηνών (των σοφών) την 5η Ιουνίου 1964, είπε στην αρχή: “Ως φυσικός έχω πλήρη συναίσθηση του χρέους μου προς τους Έλληνες, οι οποίοι εγκαινίασαν τον μεγάλο σκοπό να αποκαλύψουν την αλήθεια, που είναι κρυμμένη βαθιά μέσα στη Φύση”, (στη γλώσσα των Σίνων η αντίστοιχη λέξη “Φύση” σημαίνει: “αυτό το οποίο είναι έτσι από τον εαυτό του, όπως είναι). Αφού τόνισε έπειτα ότι, από πέντε ετών ο παππούς του κι ο πατέρας του (καθηγητής κι εκείνος του πανεπιστημίου του Κιότο), άρχισαν να του διδάσκουν τα κλασικά κινέζικα κείμενα των μαθητών του Κομφούκιου (551 – 479 π.Χ.). Δέκα τριών ετών πήρε απ’ τη βιβλιοθήκη του πατέρα του και διάβασε βιβλία περί Ταοϊσμού του Λάο Τσε και του Τσουάγκ Τσε (365 – 290 π.Χ.) και συνεχίζει: “βαθιά ήταν η εντύπωση που δέχτηκα απ’ τη φιλοσοφία τους για την αρχαία Ελλάδα”. Τον Δ’ π.Χ. αιώνα, βεβαιώνει ο Ιάπωνας καθηγητής ήταν γνωστή στην Κίνα η ελληνική φιλοσοφία. Ο Τσουάγκ Τσε, νεότερος απ’ τον Πλάτωνα, 65 περίπου χρόνια, σε ακμή ηλικίας όταν ο Μ. Αλέξανδρος έφτασε στον Ινδό ποταμό. “Με τέτοιο υπόβαθρο, λέει ο Ιάπωνας, μπήκα στον κόσμο της σύγχρονης επιστήμης, η οποία βασιζόταν στην κληρονομιά των αρχαίων Ελλήνων. Από τότε και από καιρό σε καιρό με καταδίωκε ένα ερώτημα το οποίο με καταδιώκει ακόμη. Το ερώτημα είναι: “γιατί η επιστήμη έφτασε στο υψηλό της επίπεδο αρχίζοντας μόνο από την Ελλάδα και όχι από πουθενά αλλού;”. . . “από κάποια αιτία, η αρχαία Κίνα δεν μπόρεσε να παρουσιάσει έναν τέτοιο τύπο μεγαλοφυΐας όπως ο Πυθαγόρας και ο Δημόκριτος. . . ο Πυθαγόρας ο οποίος συνέλαβε τους φυσικούς νόμους ως απλές και ορισμένες σχέσεις μεταξύ αριθμών και ο Δημόκριτος, ο οποίος σκέφθηκε την ύπαρξη των αόρατων μικρών ατόμων μαζί με την αφηρημένη έννοια του κενού”.
Δεν γνωρίζουμε αν ο Ιάπωνας σοφός, Yukawa, πήρε ικανοποιητική απάντηση εδώ στην πόλη των φώτων, την Αθήνα, απ’ τους Έλληνες σοφούς συναδέλφους του. Για μας τους Έλληνες δεν υπάρχει ερώτημα, υπάρχει κανονική ροή πολιτιστικής εξέλιξης· η ροή έχει συνοπτικότατα ως εξής:
Περί το 1000 π.Χ. κατά το μέσο μιας απ’ τις μεγαλύτερες αποικιακές μετακινήσεις των Ελλήνων, (δεν είναι η πρώτη, προηγήθηκαν πολλές άλλες) άρχισαν να συντελούνται πνευματικές, πολιτικές, κοινωνικές, συναισθηματικές, οικονομικές αλλαγές τέτοιας και τόσης σημασίας ώστε να δοθεί νέα κατεύθυνση στη ροή όχι μόνο του ελληνικού, αλλά και του πανανθρώπινου πολιτισμού. Δεν αρχίζει “μεσαίωνας” αλλά προπαρασκευή.
Γιατί από το 1000 π.Χ. περίπου άρχισε η διάδοση της γραφής για πρώτη φορά. Αν και χιλιάδες χρόνια πριν επινοήθηκε, παρέμενε ως αυστηρά απόρρητη στα Μυστήρια και στα Ανάκτορα.
Από το 1000 περίπου πρώτοι οι Έλληνες, την έθεσαν σε κοινή χρήση. Το φως του νου, η εκπαίδευση βγαίνουν από τα άδυτα· μια ευφυέστατη επινόηση μπαίνει στην υπηρεσία των ανθρώπων, των πολιτών και όχι των νομιζόμενων εκλεκτών και μόνο, για την απροσμέτρητη ωφέλεια της ανθρωπότητας. Η πείρα, οι γνώσεις, η σοφία, οι επινοήσεις, τα παραδείγματα, κάθε πνευματικό και ηθικό αγαθό δεν χάνεται αλλά διατηρείται πηγαίο και διαιωνίζεται από γενιά σε γενιά. Με τη γραφή συσσωρεύονται γνώσεις· καλλιεργείται η σκέψη· οξύνεται ο νους· αφυπνίζεται η φιλομάθεια· προκαλείται η φιλοσοφική διάθεση· η παρατήρηση, η έρευνα, η μελέτη, η διείσδυση στα άδυτα της αλήθειας αξιοποιούνται· ανοίγει ο δρόμος συστηματικής άμιλλας για επιστημονική εργασία σε μεγάλο πλήθος ταυτόχρονα, ευφυών φιλομαθών ερευνητών της αλήθειας.
Η θεοκρατική βασιλεία καταργείται· διατηρήθηκε στη χώρα του Ήλιου, του Yukawa· στην Κίνα μέχρι τον προηγούμενο αιώνα. Καταργείται η θεοκρατική βασιλεία, η μονολιθική, η αυταρχική, η συγκεντρωτική, η θεοποιημένη: ως εξουσία, ως νόμος, ως αρετή, ως πηγή γνώσης, ως παράδειγμα, ως ζωή και εκθρονίζεται από το νομιζόμενο απροσπέλαστο θρόνο πρώτα απ’ τους Έλληνες. Αντικαθίσταται από άρχοντες πλησιέστερους στο πλήθος για να καταλήξει στους εκλεγμένους απ’ το ίδιο το πλήθος. Η πολιτειακή αυτή αλλαγή οδήγησε σε πολύ ευεργετικά αποτελέσματα· άνοιξε νέους ευρύτατους ορίζοντες στην ανθρώπινη δράση· καταργεί θεσμούς παμπάλαιους οι οποίοι καταδυνάστευαν το σώμα και το πνεύμα των ανθρώπων. Αφήνεται ελευθερία στις σκέψεις, στους λόγους, στη δράση· σφυρηλατούνται νέοι θεσμοί, αρχές, αξιώματα, μέθοδοι, κατ’ εξοχήν ανθρωπιστικές προσφορές και κατάλληλες για την καθιέρωση προοδευτικών εκπολιτιστικών στοιχείων.
Στην πολιτειακή και κοινωνική αυτή αλλαγή συντέλεσαν οι γνωστοί απ’ τον Όμηρο και Ησίοδο μέχρι τον Πλάτωνα, μεγάλοι Έλληνες νομοθέτες, σοφοί, ποιητές, ιστορικοί, καλλιτέχνες.
Διευρύνεται ο ελληνικός χώρος σ’ όλα τα παράλια της Μεσογείου, Μικράς Ασίας, Ευξείνου, Θράκης, Μακεδονίας, Κάτω Ιταλίας και Σικελίας (Μεγάλη Ελλάς), Μασσαλίας (Γαλλίας), Β. Αφρικής. Η εμπορική και ναυτιλιακή κυριαρχία και θαλασσοκρατία των Ελλήνων κατά την εποχή αυτή στη Μεσόγειο συσσώρευσαν στην ελληνική φυλή πλούτη, υλικά αλλά και πείρα και μάθηση και συναίσθηση της υπεροχής τους και ορμή για εξαίρετη δημιουργική δράση.
Η πνευματική ακινησία, η δουλοπρέπεια, η δεισιδαιμονία, η άγνοια και η αμάθεια, η τυπολατρία, η λατρεία του θεού στο πρόσωπο του βασιλιά έπαψαν. Πήραν τη θέση τους και μπήκαν στην υπηρεσία του εγώ, το φως του νου για την έρευνα και την αποθησαύριση της γνώσης, η ελευθερία, η λατρεία της θεότητας όχι δι’ αντιπροσώπου δηλ. του βασιλιά, σπανιότατα στο “μέγαρο ανδρών” όπως πριν το 1000 π.Χ. περίπου, αλλά σε μεγαλοπρεπείς ναούς με τη συμμετοχή όλων “ελευθέρα βουλήσει και εν ισότητηι”· ο νόμος δεν είναι δώρο και συγκατάθεση και κρίση του ενός, αλλά θέληση και διασφάλιση και συμφέρον και προστασία του συνόλου.
Η αλλαγή αυτή, την οποία σε λίγες γραμμές εκθέσαμε, συντελέστηκε στην αρχή με βραδύτητα, έπειτα εκ των άνω σαν ξεχείλισμα, σαν συνέπεια μακράς προπαρασκευής και απ’ τη μάθηση και πείρα που συσσωρεύτηκαν κρίθηκε αναγκαία η διοχέτευση απ’ τα περισσεύματα, τρόπον τινά και στους πολλούς. Ο μυθικός θάνατος του τελευταίου βασιλιά της Αθήνας, του Κόδρου (χρονικά τοποθετείται λίγο πριν το 1000 π.Χ.), που αυτοθυσιάστηκε υπέρ της προόδου, υπέρ των νέων θεσμών, τούτο έχουμε τη γνώμη, ότι σημαίνει· ότι η Αθήνα ανοίγει το δρόμο νέας εποχής και πρόκειται να αποβεί το πνευματικό κέντρο της Ελλάδας και της ανθρωπότητας.
Η αλλαγή έγινε απ’ τα απόρρητα, απ’ τα μυστήρια αφέθηκαν ακτίνες πνευματικού και ηθικού φωτός· ήσαν ικανές να ερεθίσουν ευαίσθητο έδαφος και βλάστησαν εκεί, στο νου των Ελλήνων στοχαστών και άνθησε θεσπέσιο άνθος το οποίο έκοψε ο Πλάτωνας και το μετουσίωσε στο θείο δώρο, τη φιλοσοφία, το ευγενές, το πιο λεπτό και το πιο καλό επίτευγμα της ανθρώπινης διάνοιας.
Μέχρι τον μεγαλοφυή φιλόσοφο αλλά και επιστήμονα Πλάτωνα υπολογίζονται περίπου τετρακόσιοι οι μεγάλοι Έλληνες διανοητές. Πλουσιότατη η ηθική και κυρίως η πνευματική και η καλλιτεχνική παραγωγή τους· και συνεχίζεται η παραγωγή αυτή και κατά τους μετέπειτα αιώνες με τον μεγάλο αρχηγέτη της επιστημονικής έρευνας, τον μαθητή του Πλάτωνα, Αριστοτέλη.
Άρθρο του Α. Π. ΦΩΤΟΠΟΥΛΟΥ
πηγή: περιοδικό ΛΑΜΨΙΣ , τεύχος 9
Source: http://goo.gl/pbJQDs
Σάββατο 25 Μαρτίου 2017
Αφιέρωμα στην επέτειο της 25ης Μαρτίου 1821
25 Μαρτίου, Το νόημα και η σημασία της Εθνικής Επετείου
του Αρχιμ. Γρηγορίου Κωνσταντίνου Διδάκτωρος Θεολογίας
“Ο Άγγελος εστάθηκε διπλώνει τα φτερά του,
ξύπνα ταράξου μη φοβού, χαίρε, παρθένε χαίρε
ο κύριός μου είναι με σε, χαίρε, Μαρία χαίρε”.
Αριστοτέλης Βαλαωρίτης
“Κι ακαρτέρει κι ακαρτέρειφιλελεύθερη λαλιά
ένα κτύπαε τ’ άλλο χέρι
από την απελπισιά.” Διονύσιος Σολωμός
Μέσα στην ανθοστόλιστη άνοιξη της φύσης γιορτάζουμε χαρούμενοι και εθνικά υπερήφανοι με υψωμένα τα λάβαρα της νίκης, την άνοιξη της λευτεριάς μας. Απ’ άκρη σ’ άκρη όλη η Ελλάδα θα γιορτάσει για μια ακόμη φορά τη μεγάλη επέτειο της 25ης Μαρτίου 1821, την ημέρα της έναρξης του μεγάλου, ηρωικού και αιματηρού εθνικοαπελευθερωτικού αγώνα των γενναίων προγόνων μας για την αποτίναξη του βάρβαρου και καταθλιπτικού τουρκικού ζυγού.
Όσο και αν κυλούν τα χρόνια, η μέρα αυτή θα στέκεται, πάντα, σαν ένα φωτεινό ορόσημο, σαν ένα μαγικό αστέρι, για να μας δείχνει το δρόμο του εθνικού χρέους, να μας εμπνέει το ιδανικό της ελευθερίας και να μας θυμίζει τη διπλή μας λύτρωση από τα δεσμά της σκλαβιάς και της αμαρτίας. Διπλή, μοναδική γιορτή γιορτάζουν όλοι οι Έλληνες στα πέρατα του κόσμου. Η 25η Μαρτίου μας θυμίζει το τέλος δυο δραμάτων. Πανανθρώπινο το ένα, εθνικό το άλλο. Χαράς ευαγγέλια για τον χριστιανό που έλαβε το μήνυμα του Θεού για την λύτρωσή του από την αμαρτία και χαράς ευαγγέλια για τον έλληνα ραγιά που πήρε το μήνυμα της απελευθέρωσής του από τον ανελέητο τουρκικό ζυγό.
Έτσι η 25η Μαρτίου είναι μια λαμπρή μέρα της πατρίδας μας και της θρησκείας μας: «Έχουνε σχόλη η Παναγιά και η Ελλάς μεγάλη, η μια τον κρίνο δέχεται, δάφνης κλωνάρι η άλλη», τραγουδάει ο ποιητής. Η φαντασία μας πλανιέται την ημέρα αυτή από την Μυροβόλο Ναζαρέτ ως την τρισένδοξη αγία Λαύρα. Στην πρώτη ακούμε τον αρχάγγελο με το χαρμόσυνο μήνυμα και στη δεύτερη, τα γενναία μας παλικάρια, να ορκίζονται ενώπιον Θεού και ανθρώπων: «Ελευθερία η θάνατος». Ήταν το ξέσπασμα μιας θείας επιταγής η κραυγή αυτή, που έβγαινε εκείνη τη στιγμή, μέσα από τον πόνο και δυστυχία από το πυκνό σκοτάδι της μακρόχρονης σκλαβιάς.
Αποτελεί ιστορική αναγκαιότητα ότι κάθε λαός, για να ζήσει και να διατηρηθεί στο προσκήνιο της ιστορίας πρέπει να συνδέεται αναπόσπαστα με την κληρονομιά των προγόνων του, διαφορετικά λαοί που δεν έχουν μνήμη γρήγορα χάνονται και εξαφανίζονται από την ιστορία. Ο Έλληνας όμως έχει βαθιά ριζωμένη μέσα του την κληρονομιά των προγόνων του και απόδειξη το μεγαλειώδες γεγονός του ξεσηκωμού του μετά από τα τετρακόσια χρόνια σκλαβιάς και καταφρόνιας.
Τούτη τη χρονιά συμπληρώνονται 196 χρόνια αφ’ ότου ξύπνησε μέσα στην ψυχή των σκλαβωμένων αδελφών μας ιερός πόθος της λευτεριάς για να ριχτούν όλοι στον αγώνα, «Για του Χριστού την πίστη την Αγία και της πατρίδας την ελευθερία». Αυτό ήταν σύνθημα του αγώνα των σκλαβωμένων ραγιάδων, το ίδιο συμβολίζει και ο εορτασμός της 25ης Μαρτίου, που είναι για μας όλους η εθνική κολυμβήθρα, στην οποία βαπτίζεται το έθνος μας συνεχίζοντας τη θριαμβευτική και νικηφόρα πορεία του. Πολλές φορές στη μακρόχρονη ιστορία της τούτη η μικρή γωνιά της γης με το γαλάζιο ουρανό της και τα δαντελωτά της ακρογιαλιά, δέχτηκε τις βάρβαρες επιθέσεις λαών, που ονειρεύτηκαν να γίνουν κοσμοκράτορες. Πέρσες, Ρωμαίοι, Τούρκοι, Βούλγαροι, Ιταλοί, Γερμανοί, ξεπουλήθηκαν σα θεϊκή μάστιγα και από καιρό σε καιρό έπαιξαν το ρόλο του αφέντη και προσπάθησαν να κάνουν ραγιά το λαό μας. Στη χώρα όμως που γεννήθηκε και μεγαλούργησε η δημοκρατία βλαστάνει και το δέντρο της λευτεριάς. Η εθνική πείρα των Ελλήνων έχει δημιουργήσει σ’ αυτούς την πεποίθηση, πως όσα η ψυχρή λογική θεωρεί αδύνατα, γι’ αυτούς είναι κατορθωτά. Η 25η Μαρτίου υπήρξε ένα τέτοιο μεγαλειώδες γεγονός ένα θαύμα, που έκαμε ολόκληρη την ανθρωπότητα να στραφεί προς το χιλιοβασανισμένο, αλλά ένδοξο αυτό τόπο την ελληνική γη.
Οι λαοί της Ευρώπης είχαν λησμονήσει ότι μια χούφτα ανθρώπων ανέπνεαν ακόμη σκορπισμένοι πάνω σ’ αυτή τη γη που δεν είχε πλέον γι’ αυτούς τίποτα άλλο παρά μόνο παρελθόν, ένα ένδοξο παρελθόν χαμένο στα βάθη της ιστορίας, που ακτινοβολούσε όμως ακόμα προς όλα τα σημεία της οικουμένης. Δεν έβλεπαν πλέον σ’ αυτή τη γη ούτε παρόν ούτε μέλλον. Αυτό είναι το σημείο από το οποίο αρχίζει το μεγαλούργημα του 21 που δημιούργησε η αδούλωτη ελληνική ψυχή. Μόνο στη φιλελεύθερη κληρονομιά μας, που είναι χαρακτηριστικό της φυλής μας, μπορούμε να στηρίξουμε την παράτολμη απόφαση του ξεσηκωμού. «Εμείς αν δεν ήμασταν τρελοί, δεν κάναμε την επανάσταση» γράφει Κολοκοτρώνης. Και σε κάποιο άλλο σημείο επίσης μας λέει: «Όταν αποφασίσαμε να κάνουμε την επανάσταση δεν συλλογιστήκαμε, ούτε πόσοι είμεθα, ούτε πως δεν έχουμε άρματα, ούτε ότι οι Τούρκοι βαστούσαν τα κάστρα και τις πόλεις, αλλά ως μια βροχή έπεσε σ’ όλους μας η επιθυμία της ελευθερίας μας και όλοι και οι κληρικοί και οι προεστοί και οι καπεταναίοι και οι έμποροι, μικρή και μεγάλοι, όλοι συμφωνήσαμε εις αυτό το σκοπό και κάμαμε την επανάσταση».
Το τραγούδι του Ρήγα «Καλύτερα μιας ώρας ελεύθερη ζωή, παρά σαράντα χρόνια σκλαβιά και φυλακή» έγινε σπόρος που βλάστησε στην ψυχή κάθε Ραγιά, έδιωξε το φόβο κι έδωσε τη δύναμη για μεγάλη απόφαση. Λευτεριά ή θάνατος. Σείστηκε το μνήμα του Ραγιά. Ξεπετάχτηκε η ψυχή του σκλάβου ξανανιωμένη και σαν πρώτα ανδρειωμένη, για να διαλαλήσει «Εγώ είμαι η ακατάλυτη ψυχή των Σαλαμίνων στην Επτάλοφη έφερα το σπαθί των Ελλήνων δε χάνομαι στα τάρταρα, μονάχα ξαποσταίνω στη ζωή ξαναφαίνομαι και λαούς ανασταίνω».
Όλοι ανεξαιρέτως οι Έλληνες δίδαξαν με τις πράξεις τους, τις θυσίες τους και τις προσφορές τους ότι η νίκη δεν ανήκει πάντα στους πολλούς, ούτε στους τέλειους εξοπλισμούς. Ανήκει σ’ αυτούς που έχουν το δίκιο, γιατί αυτούς προστατεύει ο Θεός. Ανήκει σ’ αυτούς που έχουν τη δύναμη να αψηφούν το θάνατο και να προσφέρουν τη ζωή τους θυσία στο Θεό και στην Πατρίδα. Αυτούς τους ήρωες τιμούμε σήμερα. Το 21 ολοένα βγαίνει από την αιωνόβια Εθνική μας παράδοση. Δεν υπάρχει τίποτα το ξενικό μέσα στο μεγάλο του Γένους ξεσηκωμό.
Είναι αδύνατο με λόγια να αποδοθεί ένα μεγαλούργημα, μια ασύγκριτη σε δράση και δόξα ιστορική εποχή, ένα θαύμα όπως είναι το μεγαλείο του 21. Κάθε λέξη είναι φτωχή και κάθε φωνή είναι ψίθυρος απαλός, που μόλις χαϊδεύει τις γρανιτώδεις ψυχές εκείνων, που τίμησαν με το αίμα τους το δέντρο της λευτεριάς.
Ας στρέψουμε λοιπόν όλοι εμείς τούτη την ημέρα ευγνώμονα τη σκέψη μας προς όλους εκείνους που θυσιάστηκαν ποτίζοντας με το αίμα τους τον ιερό αγώνα της λευτεριάς αναφωνώντας όλοι μαζί τα λόγια του εθνικού μας ποιητή.
«Απ’ τα κόκαλα βγαλμένη των Ελλήνων τα ιερά
και σαν πρώτα ανδρειωμένη, χαίρε ω χαίρε ελευθεριά».
Source: http://goo.gl/xeWKgX
Από το Βήμα Ορθοδοξίας
Σάββατο 3 Δεκεμβρίου 2016
What Is The Singularity And Will You Live To See It?
If you read any science fiction or futurism, you've probably heard
people using the term "singularity" to describe the world of tomorrow.
But what exactly does it mean, and where does the idea come from? We
answer in today's backgrounder.
What is the singularity?
The term singularity describes the moment when a civilization changes so much that its rules and technologies are incomprehensible to previous generations. Think of it as a point-of-no-return in history.
Most thinkers believe the singularity will be jump-started by extremely rapid technological and scientific changes. These changes will be so fast, and so profound, that every aspect of our society will be transformed, from our bodies and families to our governments and economies.
A good way to understand the singularity is to imagine explaining the internet to somebody living in the year 1200. Your frames of reference would be so different that it would be almost impossible to convey how the internet works, let alone what it means to our society. You are on the other side of what seems like a singularity to our person from the Middle Ages. But from the perspective of a future singularity, we are the medieval ones. Advances in science and technology mean that singularities might happen over periods much shorter than 800 years. And nobody knows for sure what the hell they'll bring.
Talking about the singularity is a paradox, because it is an attempt to imagine something that is by definition unimaginable to people in the present day. But that hasn't stopped hundreds of science fiction writers and futurists from doing it.
Where does the term "singularity" come from?
Science fiction writer Vernor Vinge popularized the idea of the
singularity in his 1993 essay "Technological Singularity." There he described the singularity this way:
Author Ken MacLeod has a character describe the singularity as "the Rapture for nerds" in his novel The Cassini Division,
and the turn of phrase stuck, becoming a popular way to describe the
singularity. (Note: MacLeod didn't actually coin this phrase - he says he got the phrase from a satirical essay in an early-1990s issue of Extropy.) Catherynne Valente argued recently for an expansion of the term to include what she calls "personal singularities,"
moments where a person is altered so much that she becomes
unrecognizable to her former self. This definition could include
posthuman experiences.
What technologies are likely to cause the next singularity?
As we mentioned earlier, artificial intelligence is the technology that most people believe will usher in the singularity. Authors like Vinge and singulatarian Ray Kurzweil think AI will usher in the singularity for a twofold reason. First, creating a new form of intelligent life will completely change our understanding of ourselves as humans. Second, AI will allow us to develop new technologies so much faster than we could before that our civilization will transform rapidly. A corollary to AI is the development of robots who can work alongside - and beyond - humans.
Another singularity technology is the self-replicating molecular machine, also called autonomous nanobots, "gray goo," and a host of other things. Basically the idea is that if we can build machines that manipulate matter at the atomic level, we can control our world in the most granular way imaginable. And if these machines can work on their own? Who knows what will happen. For a dark vision of this singularity, see Greg Bear's novel Blood Music or Bill Joy's essay "The Future Doesn't Need Us"; for a more optimistic vision, Rudy Rucker's Postsingular.
And finally, a lot of singularitarian thought is devoted to the idea that synthetic biology, genetic engineering, and other life sciences will eventually give us control of the human genome. Two world-altering events would come out of that. One, we could engineer new forms of life and change the course of human evolution in one generation. Two, it's likely that control over our genomes will allow us to tinker with the mechanisms that make us age, thus dramatically increasing our lifespans. Many futurists, from Kurzweil and Steward Brand, to scientists like Aubrey De Gray, have suggested that extreme human longevity (in the hundreds of years) is a crucial part of the singularity.
Have we had a singularity before?
The singularity is usually anticipated as a future transformation, but it can also be used to describe past transformations like the one in our example earlier with the person from 1200. The industrial revolution could be said to represent a singularity, as could the information age.
When will the singularity happen?
In 1992, Vinge predicted that "in 30 years" we would have artificial
intelligence. We've still got 12 years to go - it could happen! In his
groundbreaking 2000 essay for Wired, "The Future Doesn't Need Us," technologist Joy opined:
Longevity scientist De Gray says that our biotech is advanced enough that a child born in 2010 might live to be 150, or 500 years old. MIT AI researcher Rodney Brooks writes in his excellent book Flesh and Machines that it's "unlikely that we will be able to simply download our brains into a computer anytime soon." Though Brooks does add:
The lives of our grandchildren and great-grandchildren will be as unrecognizable to us as our use of information technology in all its forms would be incomprehensible to someone form the dawn of the twentieth century.
So when will the singularity really happen? It depends on your perspective. But it always seem like it's just a few decades off.
Πηγή: https://goo.gl/c0pDPX
The term singularity describes the moment when a civilization changes so much that its rules and technologies are incomprehensible to previous generations. Think of it as a point-of-no-return in history.
Most thinkers believe the singularity will be jump-started by extremely rapid technological and scientific changes. These changes will be so fast, and so profound, that every aspect of our society will be transformed, from our bodies and families to our governments and economies.
A good way to understand the singularity is to imagine explaining the internet to somebody living in the year 1200. Your frames of reference would be so different that it would be almost impossible to convey how the internet works, let alone what it means to our society. You are on the other side of what seems like a singularity to our person from the Middle Ages. But from the perspective of a future singularity, we are the medieval ones. Advances in science and technology mean that singularities might happen over periods much shorter than 800 years. And nobody knows for sure what the hell they'll bring.
Talking about the singularity is a paradox, because it is an attempt to imagine something that is by definition unimaginable to people in the present day. But that hasn't stopped hundreds of science fiction writers and futurists from doing it.
Where does the term "singularity" come from?
It is a point where our old models must be discarded and a new reality rules. As we move closer to this point, it will loom vaster and vaster over human affairs till the notion becomes a commonplace. Yet when it finally happens it may still be a great surprise and a greater unknown.Specifically, Vinge pinned the Singularity to the emergence of artificial intelligence. "We are on the edge of change comparable to the rise of human life on Earth," he wrote. "The precise cause of this change is the imminent creation by technology of entities with greater than human intelligence."
What technologies are likely to cause the next singularity?
As we mentioned earlier, artificial intelligence is the technology that most people believe will usher in the singularity. Authors like Vinge and singulatarian Ray Kurzweil think AI will usher in the singularity for a twofold reason. First, creating a new form of intelligent life will completely change our understanding of ourselves as humans. Second, AI will allow us to develop new technologies so much faster than we could before that our civilization will transform rapidly. A corollary to AI is the development of robots who can work alongside - and beyond - humans.
Another singularity technology is the self-replicating molecular machine, also called autonomous nanobots, "gray goo," and a host of other things. Basically the idea is that if we can build machines that manipulate matter at the atomic level, we can control our world in the most granular way imaginable. And if these machines can work on their own? Who knows what will happen. For a dark vision of this singularity, see Greg Bear's novel Blood Music or Bill Joy's essay "The Future Doesn't Need Us"; for a more optimistic vision, Rudy Rucker's Postsingular.
And finally, a lot of singularitarian thought is devoted to the idea that synthetic biology, genetic engineering, and other life sciences will eventually give us control of the human genome. Two world-altering events would come out of that. One, we could engineer new forms of life and change the course of human evolution in one generation. Two, it's likely that control over our genomes will allow us to tinker with the mechanisms that make us age, thus dramatically increasing our lifespans. Many futurists, from Kurzweil and Steward Brand, to scientists like Aubrey De Gray, have suggested that extreme human longevity (in the hundreds of years) is a crucial part of the singularity.
The singularity is usually anticipated as a future transformation, but it can also be used to describe past transformations like the one in our example earlier with the person from 1200. The industrial revolution could be said to represent a singularity, as could the information age.
When will the singularity happen?
The enabling breakthrough to assemblers seems quite likely within the next 20 years. Molecular electronics - the new subfield of nanotechnology where individual molecules are circuit elements - should mature quickly and become enormously lucrative within this decade, causing a large incremental investment in all nanotechnologies.And in the 2005 book The Singularity Is Near, Ray Kurzweil says the singularity will come "within several decades."
Longevity scientist De Gray says that our biotech is advanced enough that a child born in 2010 might live to be 150, or 500 years old. MIT AI researcher Rodney Brooks writes in his excellent book Flesh and Machines that it's "unlikely that we will be able to simply download our brains into a computer anytime soon." Though Brooks does add:
The lives of our grandchildren and great-grandchildren will be as unrecognizable to us as our use of information technology in all its forms would be incomprehensible to someone form the dawn of the twentieth century.
So when will the singularity really happen? It depends on your perspective. But it always seem like it's just a few decades off.
Πηγή: https://goo.gl/c0pDPX
Τετάρτη 2 Νοεμβρίου 2016
Tomorrowland at Disneyland
Tomorrowland is one of the many themed lands featured at all of the Magic Kingdom styled Disney theme parks around the world owned or licensed by The Walt Disney Company. Each version of the land is different and features numerous attractions that depict views of the future. Disneyland Park in Paris includes a similar area called Discoveryland, which shares some elements with other Tomorrowlands but emphasizes visions of the future inspired by Jules Verne.
Walt Disney
was known for his futurist views and, through his television programs,
showed the American public how the world was moving into the future.
Tomorrowland was the realized culmination of his views. In his own
words: "Tomorrow can be a wonderful age. Our scientists today are
opening the doors of the Space Age
to achievements that will benefit our children and generations to come.
The Tomorrowland attractions have been designed to give you an
opportunity to participate in adventures that are a living blueprint of
our future."
It is this movement into the future that has, on occasion, left
Tomorrowland mired in the past. Disneyland's Tomorrowland is now in its
third generation, and the Magic Kingdom's Tomorrowland is in its second.
The Walt Disney Company has mentioned that it wanted to keep
Tomorrowland from becoming "Yesterdayland". As a self-referential joke
along this line, the 2007 Disney animated film Meet the Robinsons (which is set mainly in the year 2037) features an amusement park called Todayland, which has rides that look remarkably like Space Mountain and Disneyland's original Rocket Jets.
"A vista into a world of wondrous ideas, signifying Man's achievements... A step into the future, with predictions of constructed things to come. Tomorrow offers new frontiers in science, adventure and ideals. The Atomic Age, the challenge of Outer Space and the hope for a peaceful, unified world."
— Walter E. Disney, July 17, 1955
Photos in this article are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license versions 3.0, 2.5, 2.0, and 1.0.
(Source Wikipedia)
Πέμπτη 28 Ιουλίου 2016
The Real Life MBA, By Jack Welch & Suzy Welch
The Real-Life MBA will show you how to:
- Move beyond the grind of everyday challenges at work to focus on what really drives performance
- Uncover and unleash growth where it's hiding in plain sight
- Protect your organization from a competitive hit or recover from one that has already nailed you
- Understand and analyze 'the numbers' for what they really are, especially if you're not the CFO
- Weather a social media thrashing and live to tell the tale
- Cultivate the two essential behaviors of leadership today
- Manage the tech 'geniuses' whose expertise may outstrip your own and the critical 'virtual' employees who can too easily get lost in the ether
- Create an energized, engaged team that's greater than the sum of its parts
- Hire people with a technique that leads to far fewer occurrences of 'What was I thinking?'
- Organize HR in a radically new way that positions it to change the game
- Jettison yourself out of a career holding pattern and into a job in your 'area of destiny'
An amazing book I recommend to you!
Δευτέρα 20 Ιουνίου 2016
Wikipedia, The Internet Encyclopedia
Wikipedia is an Internet encyclopedia, supported and hosted by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. It is a free-of-cost encyclopedia with its articles being free-content; those who use Wikipedia can edit almost any article accessible. Wikipedia is ranked among the ten most popular websites, and constitutes the Internet's largest and most popular general reference work.
Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger launched Wikipedia on January 15, 2001. Sanger coined its name, a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia. Wikipedia was only in the English language initially, but it quickly became multilingual as it developed similar versions in other languages which differ in content and in editing practices. The English Wikipedia is now one of 292 Wikipedia editions and holds the largest amount of articles, with more than 5,178,708, having surpassed 5,000,000 articles in November 2015. Wikipedia consists of a grand total of more than 38 million articles in more than 250 different languages throughout all current encyclopedias. As of February 2014, it had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors each month.
A peer review was published in Nature in 2005 assessing 42 science articles that were found in both Encyclopædia Britannica and Wikipedia. The review found that Wikipedia's level of accuracy approaches that of Encyclopedia Britannica's. However, Wikipedia has been subjectively criticized; claims show that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias, presenting a mixture of "truths, half truths, and some falsehoods", and controversial topics could be manipulated or spun.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#Content_policies_and_guidelines/
Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger launched Wikipedia on January 15, 2001. Sanger coined its name, a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia. Wikipedia was only in the English language initially, but it quickly became multilingual as it developed similar versions in other languages which differ in content and in editing practices. The English Wikipedia is now one of 292 Wikipedia editions and holds the largest amount of articles, with more than 5,178,708, having surpassed 5,000,000 articles in November 2015. Wikipedia consists of a grand total of more than 38 million articles in more than 250 different languages throughout all current encyclopedias. As of February 2014, it had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors each month.
A peer review was published in Nature in 2005 assessing 42 science articles that were found in both Encyclopædia Britannica and Wikipedia. The review found that Wikipedia's level of accuracy approaches that of Encyclopedia Britannica's. However, Wikipedia has been subjectively criticized; claims show that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias, presenting a mixture of "truths, half truths, and some falsehoods", and controversial topics could be manipulated or spun.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia#Content_policies_and_guidelines/
Δευτέρα 18 Απριλίου 2016
4 Myths About Affiliate Marketing
There are lots of myths out there surrounding affiliate marketing,
and these can frequently cause brands/businesses to pass on these kinds
of programs. It’s important you understand some of these myths so you
can make the correct decisions for the future growth of your business.
Whether you’re the brand manager at a Fortune 100 brand or the marketing director/everything else at a startup, setting up a solid affiliate program can open a revenue avenue without much of the hassle usually associated with setting up new marketing initiatives.
1. Affiliate systems are quick and easy to manage
An affiliate marketing program is a lot of work, and in most situations there’s a lot of competition so you’re not going to be bringing in money immediately. Business owners and entrepreneurs suppose that all you need do is setup a site and choose an affiliate to associate with and then just let it run its course. But according to Three Ladders Marketing, only 0.6% of affiliate marketers surveyed have been in the game since 2013. That means that affiliate marketing takes time and effort to build and make money.
The affiliate marketing business relies on fostering relationships. You foster these relationships by:
*Bringing the right partners into your program
*Seeking out better and more efficient partnerships
*Updating your content regularly to keep things new and fresh.
An affiliate program is only going to help bring traffic to your website or business; you are in charge of turning that traffic into conversions.
2. You need to work in a very popular and lucrative niche to make affiliate marketing work for your business.
A lot of companies do not even bother trying an affiliate marketing program because they think their market is too little. Some companies will try and break into bigger niches even if they don’t have any interest in the market niche.
It is true that popular niches do better with affiliate marketing, but that doesn’t mean you do not have a chance at success. Stay in line with the goals and mission statement of your company and find affiliates who understand the relevance of working in a market where you are comfortable.
3. Affiliate marketing is a strategy of yesterday
Due to Google’s new algorithms for SEO, link building is becoming outdated which can discourage affiliate activity. Even if this is the case, there are many new ways to use SEO and build your brand.
You might come across a couple of link problems with Google if you are not managing your program, but for the most part the entire notion of affiliate marketing still makes sense to Google –it offers another relevant and related resource to consumers.
4. Success in affiliate marketing comes from getting your product on as many sites as possible
The best way to think about affiliate marketing is quality over quantity. There are a lot of small websites that will promote your product, but the key is finding a small number of partners that will deliver conversions. For example, an equity management services firm has over 20,000 affiliates in its system, but only about 25 affiliates generate 85 percent of revenue.
The real deliverables will be dependent on locating the right affiliates, big or small, which drive results. According to the same study done by Three Ladders Marketing, the most traffic for affiliates were driven by SEO, 79% and social media, 60%.
Although studies show that affiliate marketing isn’t easy, as you remember to foster relationships, focus on your niche, focus on a few key affiliates, and create a system that generates performance for both the advertiser and the affiliate you can drive profit and conversions for your small business.
Affiliates Beware
There are caution flags, however when it comes to affiliate marketing. In a piece late last year, Affiliate Theft Could Be Costing You Millions, Forbes contributor Jabez LeBret wrote of unscrupulous affiliate marketers’ tactics which cost brands and businesses millions of dollars every year.
LeBret adds that affiliate theft”…could be preventing you (brands/businesses) from beating profit expectations while making it difficult for you to properly allocate your marketing budget to programs that are working.
Source: Forbes: http://www.forbes.com/sites/steveolenski/2014/07/08/4-myths-about-affiliate-marketing-you-need-to-know/2/#15a809876b52/
Whether you’re the brand manager at a Fortune 100 brand or the marketing director/everything else at a startup, setting up a solid affiliate program can open a revenue avenue without much of the hassle usually associated with setting up new marketing initiatives.
1. Affiliate systems are quick and easy to manage
An affiliate marketing program is a lot of work, and in most situations there’s a lot of competition so you’re not going to be bringing in money immediately. Business owners and entrepreneurs suppose that all you need do is setup a site and choose an affiliate to associate with and then just let it run its course. But according to Three Ladders Marketing, only 0.6% of affiliate marketers surveyed have been in the game since 2013. That means that affiliate marketing takes time and effort to build and make money.
The affiliate marketing business relies on fostering relationships. You foster these relationships by:
*Bringing the right partners into your program
*Seeking out better and more efficient partnerships
*Updating your content regularly to keep things new and fresh.
An affiliate program is only going to help bring traffic to your website or business; you are in charge of turning that traffic into conversions.
2. You need to work in a very popular and lucrative niche to make affiliate marketing work for your business.
A lot of companies do not even bother trying an affiliate marketing program because they think their market is too little. Some companies will try and break into bigger niches even if they don’t have any interest in the market niche.
It is true that popular niches do better with affiliate marketing, but that doesn’t mean you do not have a chance at success. Stay in line with the goals and mission statement of your company and find affiliates who understand the relevance of working in a market where you are comfortable.
3. Affiliate marketing is a strategy of yesterday
Due to Google’s new algorithms for SEO, link building is becoming outdated which can discourage affiliate activity. Even if this is the case, there are many new ways to use SEO and build your brand.
You might come across a couple of link problems with Google if you are not managing your program, but for the most part the entire notion of affiliate marketing still makes sense to Google –it offers another relevant and related resource to consumers.
4. Success in affiliate marketing comes from getting your product on as many sites as possible
The best way to think about affiliate marketing is quality over quantity. There are a lot of small websites that will promote your product, but the key is finding a small number of partners that will deliver conversions. For example, an equity management services firm has over 20,000 affiliates in its system, but only about 25 affiliates generate 85 percent of revenue.
The real deliverables will be dependent on locating the right affiliates, big or small, which drive results. According to the same study done by Three Ladders Marketing, the most traffic for affiliates were driven by SEO, 79% and social media, 60%.
Although studies show that affiliate marketing isn’t easy, as you remember to foster relationships, focus on your niche, focus on a few key affiliates, and create a system that generates performance for both the advertiser and the affiliate you can drive profit and conversions for your small business.
Affiliates Beware
There are caution flags, however when it comes to affiliate marketing. In a piece late last year, Affiliate Theft Could Be Costing You Millions, Forbes contributor Jabez LeBret wrote of unscrupulous affiliate marketers’ tactics which cost brands and businesses millions of dollars every year.
LeBret adds that affiliate theft”…could be preventing you (brands/businesses) from beating profit expectations while making it difficult for you to properly allocate your marketing budget to programs that are working.
Source: Forbes: http://www.forbes.com/sites/steveolenski/2014/07/08/4-myths-about-affiliate-marketing-you-need-to-know/2/#15a809876b52/
Παρασκευή 25 Μαρτίου 2016
Killer Application, Marketing
In marketing terminology, a killer application (commonly shortened to killer app) is any computer program that is so necessary or desirable that it proves the core value of some larger technology, such as computer hardware, gaming console, software, a programming language, software platform, or an operating system. In other words, consumers would buy the (usually expensive) hardware just to run that application. A killer app can substantially increase sales of the platform on which it runs.
Examples
One of the first examples of a killer application is generally agreed to be the VisiCalc spreadsheet for the Apple II series. Because it was not available on other computers for 12 months, people spent $100 for the software first, then $2,000 to $10,000 on the Apple computer they needed to run it. BYTE wrote in 1980, "VisiCalc is the first program available on a microcomputer that has been responsible for sales of entire systems", while Creative Computing's VisiCalc review was subtitled "reason enough for owning a computer". Others also choose to develop software, such as EasyWriter, for the Apple II first because of its higher sales, helping Apple defeat rivals Commodore International and Tandy Corporation.
Lotus 1-2-3 similarly benefited sales of the IBM PC and compatibles, including to Apple owners. Noting that computer purchasers did not want PC compatibility as much as compatibility with certain PC software, InfoWorld suggested "let's tell it like it is. Let's not say 'PC compatible,' or even 'MS-DOS compatible.' Instead, let's say '1-2-3 compatible.' "Another killer app is WordStar, the most popular word processor during much of the 1980s. Once the Internet became more widely available to consumers, email was seen as a killer app that drove people to purchase computers, even though email is a genre of applications rather than a single "app."
Usage
The first recorded use of the term in print was 1987, in PC Week 8 Sept. 107/2. "Everybody has only one killer application. The secretary has a word processor. The manager has a spreadsheet."
The definition of "killer app" came up during Bill Gates's questioning in the United States v. Microsoft antitrust suit. Bill Gates had written an email in which he described Internet Explorer as a killer app. In the questioning, he said that the term meant "a popular application", and did not connote an application that would fuel sales of a larger product or one that would supplant its competition, as the Microsoft Computer Dictionary defined it.
Selected applications for computer systems
AmigaOS: Deluxe Paint, Video Toaster
RISC OS: Sibelius (before 1998)
Video games
The term has also been applied to computer and video games that cause consumers to buy a particular video game console or gaming hardware over a competing one. Examples of a video game killer applications are:
1.) The first generally agreed example of a "killer app" in gaming is Space Invaders, released for arcades in 1978 and ported to the Atari VCS (Atari 2600) console in 1980, quadrupling sales of the then three-year-old Atari 2600 platform.
2.) Star Raiders, released in 1979 on cartridge for the Atari 8-bit computer, was considered to be a "killer app" for a computer platform.
3.) Donkey Kong was the killer app for the ColecoVision console in 1982.
4.) The video gaming website GameTrailers considers the Super Mario Bros. games to be the killer app for nearly all Nintendo home consoles, Tetris as the killer app for the Game Boy, Grand Theft Auto III for the PlayStation 2, Super Smash Bros. Melee for the GameCube, and Wii Sports for the Nintendo Wii.
5.) Computer Gaming World stated that The Legend of Zelda on the Nintendo Entertainment System, Phantasy Star II on the Sega Genesis, and Far East of Eden for the NEC TurboGrafx-16 were killer apps for their consoles.
6.) John Madden Football's popularity in 1990 helped the Genesis gain market share against the Super Nintendo.
7.) Sonic the Hedgehog, released in 1991, was hailed as a killer app as it revived sales of the (by then) three-year-old Genesis.
8.) Street Fighter II, originally released for arcades in 1991, became a system-seller for the Super Nintendo when it was ported to the platform in 1992, boosting the console's sales.
9.) Myst and The 7th Guest, both released in 1993, could be considered killer apps for their influence on CD-ROM drive sales for personal computers, leading to widespread market adoption of the format.
10.) Final Fantasy VII is considered a "killer app" that the original PlayStation had along with Metal Gear Solid. These were immensely popular exclusives for the system. Other games that could be considered killer apps for the system included Resident Evil, Gran Turismo and Crash Bandicoot.
11.) Pokémon Red and Blue could be classified a "killer app" for the seven-year-old Game Boy as a craze evolved around the series in the late 1990s, and it was only available on that platform.
12.) Pokemon Gold and Silver were released at the height of the Pokemon craze alongside the Game Boy Color, and fueled the sales for the console all the way to the release of the Game Boy Advance two years later.
13.) Super Mario 64, GoldenEye 007 and The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time could be considered killer apps for the Nintendo 64, with Super Mario 64 being one of two launch titles for the console and the main factor behind the platform's initial success.
14.) Quake could be considered the killer app for 3dfx's Voodoo Graphics 3D accelerator card for home computers.
15.) Halo and Gears of War are considered to be the killer apps for the Xbox and Xbox 360.
(Source Wikipedia)
Examples
One of the first examples of a killer application is generally agreed to be the VisiCalc spreadsheet for the Apple II series. Because it was not available on other computers for 12 months, people spent $100 for the software first, then $2,000 to $10,000 on the Apple computer they needed to run it. BYTE wrote in 1980, "VisiCalc is the first program available on a microcomputer that has been responsible for sales of entire systems", while Creative Computing's VisiCalc review was subtitled "reason enough for owning a computer". Others also choose to develop software, such as EasyWriter, for the Apple II first because of its higher sales, helping Apple defeat rivals Commodore International and Tandy Corporation.
Lotus 1-2-3 similarly benefited sales of the IBM PC and compatibles, including to Apple owners. Noting that computer purchasers did not want PC compatibility as much as compatibility with certain PC software, InfoWorld suggested "let's tell it like it is. Let's not say 'PC compatible,' or even 'MS-DOS compatible.' Instead, let's say '1-2-3 compatible.' "Another killer app is WordStar, the most popular word processor during much of the 1980s. Once the Internet became more widely available to consumers, email was seen as a killer app that drove people to purchase computers, even though email is a genre of applications rather than a single "app."
Usage
The first recorded use of the term in print was 1987, in PC Week 8 Sept. 107/2. "Everybody has only one killer application. The secretary has a word processor. The manager has a spreadsheet."
The definition of "killer app" came up during Bill Gates's questioning in the United States v. Microsoft antitrust suit. Bill Gates had written an email in which he described Internet Explorer as a killer app. In the questioning, he said that the term meant "a popular application", and did not connote an application that would fuel sales of a larger product or one that would supplant its competition, as the Microsoft Computer Dictionary defined it.
Selected applications for computer systems
AmigaOS: Deluxe Paint, Video Toaster
RISC OS: Sibelius (before 1998)
Video games
The term has also been applied to computer and video games that cause consumers to buy a particular video game console or gaming hardware over a competing one. Examples of a video game killer applications are:
1.) The first generally agreed example of a "killer app" in gaming is Space Invaders, released for arcades in 1978 and ported to the Atari VCS (Atari 2600) console in 1980, quadrupling sales of the then three-year-old Atari 2600 platform.
2.) Star Raiders, released in 1979 on cartridge for the Atari 8-bit computer, was considered to be a "killer app" for a computer platform.
3.) Donkey Kong was the killer app for the ColecoVision console in 1982.
4.) The video gaming website GameTrailers considers the Super Mario Bros. games to be the killer app for nearly all Nintendo home consoles, Tetris as the killer app for the Game Boy, Grand Theft Auto III for the PlayStation 2, Super Smash Bros. Melee for the GameCube, and Wii Sports for the Nintendo Wii.
5.) Computer Gaming World stated that The Legend of Zelda on the Nintendo Entertainment System, Phantasy Star II on the Sega Genesis, and Far East of Eden for the NEC TurboGrafx-16 were killer apps for their consoles.
6.) John Madden Football's popularity in 1990 helped the Genesis gain market share against the Super Nintendo.
7.) Sonic the Hedgehog, released in 1991, was hailed as a killer app as it revived sales of the (by then) three-year-old Genesis.
8.) Street Fighter II, originally released for arcades in 1991, became a system-seller for the Super Nintendo when it was ported to the platform in 1992, boosting the console's sales.
9.) Myst and The 7th Guest, both released in 1993, could be considered killer apps for their influence on CD-ROM drive sales for personal computers, leading to widespread market adoption of the format.
10.) Final Fantasy VII is considered a "killer app" that the original PlayStation had along with Metal Gear Solid. These were immensely popular exclusives for the system. Other games that could be considered killer apps for the system included Resident Evil, Gran Turismo and Crash Bandicoot.
11.) Pokémon Red and Blue could be classified a "killer app" for the seven-year-old Game Boy as a craze evolved around the series in the late 1990s, and it was only available on that platform.
12.) Pokemon Gold and Silver were released at the height of the Pokemon craze alongside the Game Boy Color, and fueled the sales for the console all the way to the release of the Game Boy Advance two years later.
13.) Super Mario 64, GoldenEye 007 and The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time could be considered killer apps for the Nintendo 64, with Super Mario 64 being one of two launch titles for the console and the main factor behind the platform's initial success.
14.) Quake could be considered the killer app for 3dfx's Voodoo Graphics 3D accelerator card for home computers.
15.) Halo and Gears of War are considered to be the killer apps for the Xbox and Xbox 360.
(Source Wikipedia)
Πέμπτη 24 Μαρτίου 2016
Στην κοινωνική δομή Πειραιά της Unesco
Στο πλαίσιο ευαισθητοποίησης των ανθρώπων στα προβλήματα των προσφύγων, των άστεγων και των άπορων, επισκεφτήκαμε την Κοινωνική Δομή Πειραιά της Unesco. Μιλήσαμε με τον πρόεδρο κύριο Μαρωνίτη αλλά και με εργαζόμενες, ακούσαμε τους ανθρώπους που ζουν εκεί και συγκεντρώσαμε υλικό για να δημιουργήσουμε καμπάνια ευαισθητοποίησης στα Social Media. Τα παραπάνω έλαβαν χώρα ως κομμάτι της εκπαίδευσης των σπουδαστών του Future Business School, υπό την εποπτεία της καθηγήτριας Ναταλία Στεφανίδη και με στόχο την ενημέρωση των ανθρώπων, να νιώσουμε τα προβλήματα και όχι μόνο να σταθούμε σε πληροφοριακό υλικό. Φωτογραφικό υλικό φαίνεται παρακάτω:
Παρασκευή 11 Μαρτίου 2016
Αριστοτέλης, Μελαγχολία & Ιδιοφυία
"Υπάρχουν κείμενα που δεν διακρίνονται ούτε για το ύφος ούτε για την έκταση ούτε για την πυκνότητα της σκέψης τους. Ωστόσο, η λάμψη τους δεν σβήνει. Ένα από τα μεγάλα μυστικά των έργων αυτών είναι ότι αρχικά μάς είναι ερμητικά κλεισμένα: εγγράφονται σ' έναν πολιτισμό που έχει εξαφανιστεί. Κι όμως, ένα αίσθημα οικειότητας μας δένει μαζί τους. Μας μιλάνε για πράγματα προφανή ή μάλλον για ιδέες που έχουμε ήδη προσλάβει - δεν ξέρουμε πια από πού. Μας επαναφέρουν σε κοινούς τόπους της δικής μας κουλτούρας και μας επιβάλλουν μια αρχαιολογική εργασία στο φαντασιακό πεδίο του πολιτισμού μας."
Jackie Pigeaud, Εισαγωγή από το βιβλίο: Αριστοτέλης, "Το 30ο πρόβλημα, Μελαγχολία και Ιδιοφυία"
πολιτισμός: το σύνολο των υλικών και πνευματικών προϊόντων της δράσης ενός συνόλου ανθρώπων (κοινωνικού, εθνικού, θρησκευτικού κ.λ.π) σε ορισμένη ή μη εποχή και ο ιδιαίτερος χαρακτήρας του όπως εκφράζεται μέσα από αυτά.
Jackie Pigeaud, Εισαγωγή από το βιβλίο: Αριστοτέλης, "Το 30ο πρόβλημα, Μελαγχολία και Ιδιοφυία"
πολιτισμός: το σύνολο των υλικών και πνευματικών προϊόντων της δράσης ενός συνόλου ανθρώπων (κοινωνικού, εθνικού, θρησκευτικού κ.λ.π) σε ορισμένη ή μη εποχή και ο ιδιαίτερος χαρακτήρας του όπως εκφράζεται μέσα από αυτά.
Σάββατο 1 Αυγούστου 2015
The Applied Theatre Program By NYU
Applied Theatre refers to the practice of theatre and drama in
non-traditional settings and/or with marginalized communities. It
encompasses theatre practices which tackle areas of social and cultural
policy such as public health, education, housing, social welfare, and
juvenile and criminal justice. The NYU Steinhardt Program in Educational
Theatre is recognized as a major contributor to research and praxis in
applied theatre. Faculty has
devised and written numerous applied theatre projects which have been
profiled at our NYU Forum series in theatre and public health, teaching
artistry, citizenship, multiculturalism, and theatre for social change.
Faculty serves on major peer reviewed editorial boards dedicated to
applied theatre, including Applied Theatre Researcher, ArtsPraxis, Journal of Applied Arts and Health, Research in Drama Education: The Journal of Applied Theatre and Performance.
Applied Theatre is multi-disciplinary and involves links with other research disciplines and agencies in the humanities, social sciences, and wellness and health. The focus is on the uses of theatre to educate and to grapple with complex social issues. The Program’s Applied Theatre experiences have included projects about immigration and refugees, racism and prejudice, domestic violence, queer voices, bullying, youth suicide and adolescent identity. Students of Applied Theatre have worked in a range of locations – from homes for the elderly, community and recreational sites, to prison facilities. Students who focus on Applied Theatre become active creators in the areas of political and guerilla theatre, theatre of the oppressed, theatre in prisons, and theatre for development, as well as with social service and community agencies.
The Program in Educational Theatre provides course offerings in Applied Theatre at all levels. Students engage in numerous outreach theatre projects under mindful supervision. The program offers students the chance to develop their own practical work and skills, and apply these to projects of their choice. Students have studied applied theatre at our global centers in Africa, Brazil, Europe, Mexico, and Puerto Rico, and collaborated with major leaders in the applied theatre. Doctoral graduates have written impressive studies in applied theatre especially in gender studies, justice and rehabilitation, queer theory, adolescent’ rights of development, and theatre of the oppressed.
Graduates hold senior university posts worldwide; they are teaching artists; they develop artist in residency programs; they write and implement issue-based curriculum resources; they author ethnodramas; and they lead educational and community outreach programs in urban and rural landscapes, including major cultural institutions.
Baccalaureate through doctoral students study how they can create, implement, evaluate and research Applied Theatre in community, educational and vocational contexts. The program is committed to developing future leaders and artist-practitioners who study the:
• purposes and contribution of Applied Theatre to cultural life
• major scholars and practitioners in the field of Applied Theatre
• design, application and scholarship of applied theatre in diverse contexts
Source http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/music/edtheatre/programs/appliedtheatre/
Applied Theatre is multi-disciplinary and involves links with other research disciplines and agencies in the humanities, social sciences, and wellness and health. The focus is on the uses of theatre to educate and to grapple with complex social issues. The Program’s Applied Theatre experiences have included projects about immigration and refugees, racism and prejudice, domestic violence, queer voices, bullying, youth suicide and adolescent identity. Students of Applied Theatre have worked in a range of locations – from homes for the elderly, community and recreational sites, to prison facilities. Students who focus on Applied Theatre become active creators in the areas of political and guerilla theatre, theatre of the oppressed, theatre in prisons, and theatre for development, as well as with social service and community agencies.
The Program in Educational Theatre provides course offerings in Applied Theatre at all levels. Students engage in numerous outreach theatre projects under mindful supervision. The program offers students the chance to develop their own practical work and skills, and apply these to projects of their choice. Students have studied applied theatre at our global centers in Africa, Brazil, Europe, Mexico, and Puerto Rico, and collaborated with major leaders in the applied theatre. Doctoral graduates have written impressive studies in applied theatre especially in gender studies, justice and rehabilitation, queer theory, adolescent’ rights of development, and theatre of the oppressed.
Graduates hold senior university posts worldwide; they are teaching artists; they develop artist in residency programs; they write and implement issue-based curriculum resources; they author ethnodramas; and they lead educational and community outreach programs in urban and rural landscapes, including major cultural institutions.
Baccalaureate through doctoral students study how they can create, implement, evaluate and research Applied Theatre in community, educational and vocational contexts. The program is committed to developing future leaders and artist-practitioners who study the:
• purposes and contribution of Applied Theatre to cultural life
• major scholars and practitioners in the field of Applied Theatre
• design, application and scholarship of applied theatre in diverse contexts
Source http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/music/edtheatre/programs/appliedtheatre/
Παρασκευή 2 Ιανουαρίου 2015
Σκέψεις, ιδέες, με απαρχή τη νέα χρονιά
Αγαπητοί μου φίλοι Καλή Χρονιά, Ευτυχισμένος Ο Καινούριος Χρόνος και εύχομαι σε όλους εσάς οι ευχές σας, οι κόποι σας αλλά και τα όνειρά σας να πραγματοποιηθούν, αν και το τελευταίο αυτό μερικές φορές είναι παραπλανητικό, ακόμα κι εγώ μερικές φορές το φαντάζομαι μόνο κάτω από ειδικές προδιαγραφές μόνο και μόνο για να αναφωνήσουμε στο τέλος όταν κάνεις σχέδια ο Θεός γελάει! Καλή Χρονιά λοιπόν, μακάρι το 2015 να μας βρει όλους μας πάνω σε στέρεα βήματα, για άλλους η δουλειά, για άλλους η προσωπική αποκατάσταση, για άλλους οι γνωριμίες και για άλλους το New Year Resolution να τους οδηγήσει μερικά βήματα πιο κοντά στις πιο βαθιές τους επιθυμίες, στο όραμα!
Φέτος ξεκινάω να ασχολούμαι με το συγγραφικό μου Forum στην ProBoards με τίτλο Writer’s PlayBook! Role Playing, αν και τα παιχνίδια ρόλων εμφανίζονται ως παιχνίδια, στο θέατρο αλλά και στην εκπαίδευση, λέμε ταυτόχρονα This was a good Play, όπου εδώ το Play σημαίνει θεατρικό έργο, κινηματογραφικό έργο. Ορμώμενος από το Facebook όπου εμείς οι Έλληνες το λέμε «Φατσοβιβλίο», τη δική μου σελίδα θα τη λέμε «Εργοβιβλίο»! Σημαίνει και Role Playing την ίδια στιγμή, όπως επίσης προσφέρει και ένα Infrastructure δυνατό για σελίδες ανεξαρτήτως μεγέθους, μπορεί να φιλοξενείτε ένα Forum με 10-12 άτομα από τους κολλητούς σας ή μπορεί να πρόκειται για μία σελίδα Scalable και μάλιστα χωρίς Size Limit και αυτό προσφέρεται με το καταρχήν από τα βασικά Forum Features!
Μ’ αρέσει η ιδέα του να προσελκύω άτομα! Όπως επίσης μ’ αρέσει και Το Πλατωνικό Όνειρο! Θέλω όμως η νέα χρονιά να με βρει πιο ώριμο, πιο υπεύθυνο αλλά και πιο κοινωνικό…
Πολλά φιλιά σε όλους σας!
Φέτος ξεκινάω να ασχολούμαι με το συγγραφικό μου Forum στην ProBoards με τίτλο Writer’s PlayBook! Role Playing, αν και τα παιχνίδια ρόλων εμφανίζονται ως παιχνίδια, στο θέατρο αλλά και στην εκπαίδευση, λέμε ταυτόχρονα This was a good Play, όπου εδώ το Play σημαίνει θεατρικό έργο, κινηματογραφικό έργο. Ορμώμενος από το Facebook όπου εμείς οι Έλληνες το λέμε «Φατσοβιβλίο», τη δική μου σελίδα θα τη λέμε «Εργοβιβλίο»! Σημαίνει και Role Playing την ίδια στιγμή, όπως επίσης προσφέρει και ένα Infrastructure δυνατό για σελίδες ανεξαρτήτως μεγέθους, μπορεί να φιλοξενείτε ένα Forum με 10-12 άτομα από τους κολλητούς σας ή μπορεί να πρόκειται για μία σελίδα Scalable και μάλιστα χωρίς Size Limit και αυτό προσφέρεται με το καταρχήν από τα βασικά Forum Features!
Μ’ αρέσει η ιδέα του να προσελκύω άτομα! Όπως επίσης μ’ αρέσει και Το Πλατωνικό Όνειρο! Θέλω όμως η νέα χρονιά να με βρει πιο ώριμο, πιο υπεύθυνο αλλά και πιο κοινωνικό…
Πολλά φιλιά σε όλους σας!
Παρασκευή 31 Οκτωβρίου 2014
El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos) Bio
El Greco's dramatic and expressionistic style was met with
puzzlement by his contemporaries but found appreciation in the 20th
century. El Greco is regarded as a precursor of both Expressionism and
Cubism, while his personality and works were a source of inspiration for
poets and writers such as Rainer Maria Rilke and Nikos Kazantzakis. El
Greco has been characterized by modern scholars as an artist so
individual that he belongs to no conventional school. He is best known
for tortuously elongated figures and often fantastic or phantasmagorical
pigmentation, marrying Byzantine traditions with those of Western
painting.
Early years and family
Born in 1541 in either the village of Fodele or Candia (the Venetian name of Chandax, present day Heraklion) in Crete, El Greco was descended from a prosperous urban family, which had probably been driven out of Chania to Candia after an uprising against the Venetians between 1526 and 1528. El Greco's father, Georgios Theotokopoulos (d. 1556), was a merchant and tax collector. Nothing is known about his mother or his first wife, a Greek woman. El Greco's older brother, Manoussos Theotokopoulos (1531 - December 13, 1604), was a wealthy merchant and spent the last years of his life (1603-1604) in El Greco's Toledo home.
El Greco received his initial training as an icon painter of the Cretan school, the leading centre of post-Byzantine art. In addition to painting, he probably studied the classics of ancient Greece, and perhaps the Latin classics also; he left a "working library" of 130 books at his death, including the Bible in Greek and an annotated Vasari. Candia was a center for artistic activity where Eastern and Western cultures co-existed harmoniously, where around two hundred painters were active during the 16th century, and had organized a painters' guild, based on the Italian model. In 1563, at the age of twenty-two, El Greco was described in a document as a "master" ("maestro Domenigo"), meaning he was already a master of the guild and presumably operating his own workshop. Three years later, in June 1566, as a witness to a contract, he signed his name as Master Menegos Theotokopoulos, painter.
Most scholars believe that the Theotocopoulos "family was almost certainly Greek Orthodox", although some Catholic sources still claim him from birth. Like many Orthodox emigrants to Europe, he apparently transferred to Catholicism after his arrival, and certainly practiced as a Catholic in Spain, where he described himself as a "devout Catholic" in his will. The extensive archival research conducted since the early 1960s by scholars, such as Nikolaos Panayotakis, Pandelis Prevelakis and Maria Constantoudaki, indicates strongly that El Greco's family and ancestors were Greek Orthodox. One of his uncles was an Orthodox priest, and his name is not mentioned in the Catholic archival baptismal records on Crete. Prevelakis goes even further, expressing his doubt that El Greco was ever a practicing Roman Catholic.
Italy
Christ Healing the Blind 1570s
Crete having been a possession of the Republic of Venice since 1211, it was natural for the young El Greco to pursue his career in Venice. Though the exact year is not clear, most scholars agree that El Greco went to Venice around 1567. Knowledge of El Greco's years in Italy is limited. He lived in Venice until 1570 and, according to a letter written by his much older friend, the greatest miniaturist of the age, the Croatian Giulio Clovio, was a "disciple" of Titian, who was by then in his eighties but still vigorous. This may mean he worked in Titian's large studio, or not. Clovio characterized El Greco as "a rare talent in painting".
In 1570 El Greco moved to Rome, where he executed a series of works strongly marked by his Venetian apprenticeship. It is unknown how long he remained in Rome, though he may have returned to Venice (c. 1575-1576) before he left for Spain. In Rome, on the recommendation of Giulio Clovio, El Greco was received as a guest at the Palazzo Farnese, which Cardinal Alessandro Farnese had made a centre of the artistic and intellectual life of the city. There he came into contact with the intellectual elite of the city, including the Roman scholar Fulvio Orsini, whose collection would later include seven paintings by the artist (View of Mt. Sinai and a portrait of Clovio are among them).
Unlike other Cretan artists who had moved to Venice, El Greco substantially altered his style and sought to distinguish himself by inventing new and unusual interpretations of traditional religious subject matter. His works painted in Italy were influenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period, with agile, elongated figures reminiscent of Tintoretto and a chromatic framework that connects him to Titian. The Venetian painters also taught him to organize his multi-figured compositions in landscapes vibrant with atmospheric light. Clovio reports visiting El Greco on a summer's day while the artist was still in Rome. El Greco was sitting in a darkened room, because he found the darkness more conducive to thought than the light of the day, which disturbed his "inner light". As a result of his stay in Rome, his works were enriched with elements such as violent perspective vanishing points or strange attitudes struck by the figures with their repeated twisting and turning and tempestuous gestures; all elements of Mannerism.
By the time El Greco arrived in Rome, Michelangelo and Raphael were dead, but their example continued to be paramount and left little room for different approaches. Although the artistic heritage of these great masters was overwhelming for young painters, El Greco was determined to make his own mark in Rome defending his personal artistic views, ideas and style. He singled out Correggio and Parmigianino for particular praise, but he did not hesitate to dismiss Michelangelo's Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel; he extended an offer to Pope Pius V to paint over the whole work in accord with the new and stricter Catholic thinking. When he was later asked what he thought about Michelangelo, El Greco replied that "he was a good man, but he did not know how to paint". And thus we are confronted by a paradox: El Greco is said to have reacted most strongly or even condemned Michelangelo, but he had found it impossible to withstand his influence. Michelangelo's influence can be seen in later El Greco works such as the Allegory of the Holy League. By painting portraits of Michelangelo, Titian, Clovio and, presumably, Raphael in one of his works (The Purification of the Temple), El Greco not only expressed his gratitude but advanced the claim to rival these masters. As his own commentaries indicate, El Greco viewed Titian, Michelangelo and Raphael as models to emulate. In his 17th century Chronicles, Giulio Mancini included El Greco among the painters who had initiated, in various ways, a re-evaluation of Michelangelo's teachings.
Because of his unconventional artistic beliefs (such as his dismissal of Michelangelo's technique) and personality, El Greco soon acquired enemies in Rome. Architect and writer Pirro Ligorio called him a "foolish foreigner", and newly discovered archival material reveals a skirmish with Farnese, who obliged the young artist to leave his palace. On July 6, 1572, El Greco officially complained about this event. A few months later, on September 18, 1572, El Greco paid his dues to the Guild of Saint Luke in Rome as a miniature painter. At the end of that year, El Greco opened his own workshop and hired as assistants the painters Lattanzio Bonastri de Lucignano and Francisco Preboste.
Spain
Immigration to Toledo
In 1577, El Greco emigrated first to Madrid, then to Toledo, where he produced his mature works. At the time, Toledo was the religious capital of Spain and a populous city with "an illustrious past, a prosperous present and an uncertain future". In Rome, El Greco had earned the respect of some intellectuals, but was also facing the hostility of certain art critics. During the 1570s the huge monastery-palace of El Escorial was still under construction and Philip II of Spain was experiencing difficulties in finding good artists for the many large paintings required to decorate it. Titian was dead, and Tintoretto, Veronese and Anthonis Mor all refused to come to Spain. Philip had had to rely on the lesser talent of Juan Fernandes de Navarrete, whose gravedad y decoro ("seriousness and decorum") the king approved. However, he had just died in 1579; the moment should have been ideal for El Greco. Through Clovio and Orsini, El Greco met Benito Arias Montano, a Spanish humanist and agent of Philip; Pedro Chacon, a clergyman; and Luis de Castilla, son of Diego de Castilla, the dean of the Cathedral of Toledo. El Greco's friendship with Castilla would secure his first large commissions in Toledo. He arrived in Toledo by July 1577, and signed contracts for a group of paintings that was to adorn the church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo in Toledo and for the renowned El Espolio. By September 1579 he had completed nine paintings for Santo Domingo, including The Trinity and The Assumption of the Virgin. These works would establish the painter's reputation in Toledo.
El Greco did not plan to settle permanently in Toledo, since his final aim was to win the favor of Philip and make his mark in his court. Indeed, he did manage to secure two important commissions from the monarch: Allegory of the Holy League and Martyrdom of St. Maurice. However, the king did not like these works and placed the St Maurice altarpiece in the chapter-house rather than the intended chapel. He gave no further commissions to El Greco. The exact reasons for the king's dissatisfaction remain unclear. Some scholars have suggested that Philip did not like the inclusion of living persons in a religious scene; some others that El Greco's works violated a basic rule of the Counter-Reformation, namely that in the image the content was paramount rather than the style. Philip took a close interest in his artistic commissions, and had very decided tastes; a long sought-after sculpted Crucifixion by Benvenuto Cellini also failed to please when it arrived, and was likewise exiled to a less prominent place. Philip's next experiment, with Federigo Zuccaro was even less successful. In any case, Philip's dissatisfaction ended any hopes of royal patronage El Greco may have had.
Mature works and later years
Immigration to Toledo
Lacking the favor of the king, El Greco was obliged to remain in Toledo, where he had been received in 1577 as a great painter. According to Hortensio Felix Paravicino, a 17th-century Spanish preacher and poet, "Crete gave him life and the painter's craft, Toledo a better homeland, where through Death he began to achieve eternal life." In 1585, he appears to have hired an assistant, Italian painter Francisco Preboste, and to have established a workshop capable of producing altar frames and statues as well as paintings. On March 12, 1586 he obtained the commission for The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, now his best-known work. The decade 1597 to 1607 was a period of intense activity for El Greco. During these years he received several major commissions, and his workshop created pictorial and sculptural ensembles for a variety of religious institutions. Among his major commissions of this period were three altars for the Chapel of San Jose in Toledo (1597-1599); three paintings (1596-1600) for the Colegio de Dona Maria de Aragon, an Augustinian monastery in Madrid, and the high altar, four lateral altars, and the painting St. Ildefonso for the Capilla Mayor of the Hospital de la Caridad (Hospital of Charity) at Illescas (1603-1605). The minutes of the commission of The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception (1607-1613), which were composed by the personnel of the municipality, describe El Greco as "one of the greatest men in both this kingdom and outside it".
Between 1607 and 1608 El Greco was involved in a protracted legal dispute with the authorities of the Hospital of Charity at Illescas concerning payment for his work, which included painting, sculpture and architecture. This and other legal disputes contributed to the economic difficulties he experienced towards the end of his life. In 1608, he received his last major commission: for the Hospital of Saint John the Baptist in Toledo.
El Greco made Toledo his home. Surviving contracts mention him as the tenant from 1585 onwards of a complex consisting of three apartments and twenty-four rooms which belonged to the Marquis de Villena. It was in these apartments, which also served as his workshop, that he passed the rest of his life, painting and studying. He lived in considerable style, sometimes employing musicians to play whilst he dined. It is not confirmed whether he lived with his Spanish female companion, Jeronima de Las Cuevas, whom he probably never married. She was the mother of his only son, Jorge Manuel, born in 1578, who also became a painter, assisted his father, and continued to repeat his compositions for many years after he inherited the studio. In 1604, Jorge Manuel and Alfonsa de los Morales gave birth to El Greco's grandson, Gabriel, who was baptized by Gregorio Angulo, governor of Toledo and a personal friend of the artist.
During the course of the execution of a commission for the Hospital Tavera, El Greco fell seriously ill, and a month later, on April 7, 1614, he died. A few days earlier, on March 31, he had directed that his son should have the power to make his will. Two Greeks, friends of the painter, witnessed this last will and testament (El Greco never lost touch with his Greek origins). He was buried in the Church of Santo Domingo el Antigua. (From Wikipedia)
Source http://www.el-greco-foundation.org/
Early years and family
Born in 1541 in either the village of Fodele or Candia (the Venetian name of Chandax, present day Heraklion) in Crete, El Greco was descended from a prosperous urban family, which had probably been driven out of Chania to Candia after an uprising against the Venetians between 1526 and 1528. El Greco's father, Georgios Theotokopoulos (d. 1556), was a merchant and tax collector. Nothing is known about his mother or his first wife, a Greek woman. El Greco's older brother, Manoussos Theotokopoulos (1531 - December 13, 1604), was a wealthy merchant and spent the last years of his life (1603-1604) in El Greco's Toledo home.
El Greco received his initial training as an icon painter of the Cretan school, the leading centre of post-Byzantine art. In addition to painting, he probably studied the classics of ancient Greece, and perhaps the Latin classics also; he left a "working library" of 130 books at his death, including the Bible in Greek and an annotated Vasari. Candia was a center for artistic activity where Eastern and Western cultures co-existed harmoniously, where around two hundred painters were active during the 16th century, and had organized a painters' guild, based on the Italian model. In 1563, at the age of twenty-two, El Greco was described in a document as a "master" ("maestro Domenigo"), meaning he was already a master of the guild and presumably operating his own workshop. Three years later, in June 1566, as a witness to a contract, he signed his name as Master Menegos Theotokopoulos, painter.
Most scholars believe that the Theotocopoulos "family was almost certainly Greek Orthodox", although some Catholic sources still claim him from birth. Like many Orthodox emigrants to Europe, he apparently transferred to Catholicism after his arrival, and certainly practiced as a Catholic in Spain, where he described himself as a "devout Catholic" in his will. The extensive archival research conducted since the early 1960s by scholars, such as Nikolaos Panayotakis, Pandelis Prevelakis and Maria Constantoudaki, indicates strongly that El Greco's family and ancestors were Greek Orthodox. One of his uncles was an Orthodox priest, and his name is not mentioned in the Catholic archival baptismal records on Crete. Prevelakis goes even further, expressing his doubt that El Greco was ever a practicing Roman Catholic.
Italy
Christ Healing the Blind 1570s
Crete having been a possession of the Republic of Venice since 1211, it was natural for the young El Greco to pursue his career in Venice. Though the exact year is not clear, most scholars agree that El Greco went to Venice around 1567. Knowledge of El Greco's years in Italy is limited. He lived in Venice until 1570 and, according to a letter written by his much older friend, the greatest miniaturist of the age, the Croatian Giulio Clovio, was a "disciple" of Titian, who was by then in his eighties but still vigorous. This may mean he worked in Titian's large studio, or not. Clovio characterized El Greco as "a rare talent in painting".
In 1570 El Greco moved to Rome, where he executed a series of works strongly marked by his Venetian apprenticeship. It is unknown how long he remained in Rome, though he may have returned to Venice (c. 1575-1576) before he left for Spain. In Rome, on the recommendation of Giulio Clovio, El Greco was received as a guest at the Palazzo Farnese, which Cardinal Alessandro Farnese had made a centre of the artistic and intellectual life of the city. There he came into contact with the intellectual elite of the city, including the Roman scholar Fulvio Orsini, whose collection would later include seven paintings by the artist (View of Mt. Sinai and a portrait of Clovio are among them).
Unlike other Cretan artists who had moved to Venice, El Greco substantially altered his style and sought to distinguish himself by inventing new and unusual interpretations of traditional religious subject matter. His works painted in Italy were influenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period, with agile, elongated figures reminiscent of Tintoretto and a chromatic framework that connects him to Titian. The Venetian painters also taught him to organize his multi-figured compositions in landscapes vibrant with atmospheric light. Clovio reports visiting El Greco on a summer's day while the artist was still in Rome. El Greco was sitting in a darkened room, because he found the darkness more conducive to thought than the light of the day, which disturbed his "inner light". As a result of his stay in Rome, his works were enriched with elements such as violent perspective vanishing points or strange attitudes struck by the figures with their repeated twisting and turning and tempestuous gestures; all elements of Mannerism.
By the time El Greco arrived in Rome, Michelangelo and Raphael were dead, but their example continued to be paramount and left little room for different approaches. Although the artistic heritage of these great masters was overwhelming for young painters, El Greco was determined to make his own mark in Rome defending his personal artistic views, ideas and style. He singled out Correggio and Parmigianino for particular praise, but he did not hesitate to dismiss Michelangelo's Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel; he extended an offer to Pope Pius V to paint over the whole work in accord with the new and stricter Catholic thinking. When he was later asked what he thought about Michelangelo, El Greco replied that "he was a good man, but he did not know how to paint". And thus we are confronted by a paradox: El Greco is said to have reacted most strongly or even condemned Michelangelo, but he had found it impossible to withstand his influence. Michelangelo's influence can be seen in later El Greco works such as the Allegory of the Holy League. By painting portraits of Michelangelo, Titian, Clovio and, presumably, Raphael in one of his works (The Purification of the Temple), El Greco not only expressed his gratitude but advanced the claim to rival these masters. As his own commentaries indicate, El Greco viewed Titian, Michelangelo and Raphael as models to emulate. In his 17th century Chronicles, Giulio Mancini included El Greco among the painters who had initiated, in various ways, a re-evaluation of Michelangelo's teachings.
Because of his unconventional artistic beliefs (such as his dismissal of Michelangelo's technique) and personality, El Greco soon acquired enemies in Rome. Architect and writer Pirro Ligorio called him a "foolish foreigner", and newly discovered archival material reveals a skirmish with Farnese, who obliged the young artist to leave his palace. On July 6, 1572, El Greco officially complained about this event. A few months later, on September 18, 1572, El Greco paid his dues to the Guild of Saint Luke in Rome as a miniature painter. At the end of that year, El Greco opened his own workshop and hired as assistants the painters Lattanzio Bonastri de Lucignano and Francisco Preboste.
Spain
Immigration to Toledo
In 1577, El Greco emigrated first to Madrid, then to Toledo, where he produced his mature works. At the time, Toledo was the religious capital of Spain and a populous city with "an illustrious past, a prosperous present and an uncertain future". In Rome, El Greco had earned the respect of some intellectuals, but was also facing the hostility of certain art critics. During the 1570s the huge monastery-palace of El Escorial was still under construction and Philip II of Spain was experiencing difficulties in finding good artists for the many large paintings required to decorate it. Titian was dead, and Tintoretto, Veronese and Anthonis Mor all refused to come to Spain. Philip had had to rely on the lesser talent of Juan Fernandes de Navarrete, whose gravedad y decoro ("seriousness and decorum") the king approved. However, he had just died in 1579; the moment should have been ideal for El Greco. Through Clovio and Orsini, El Greco met Benito Arias Montano, a Spanish humanist and agent of Philip; Pedro Chacon, a clergyman; and Luis de Castilla, son of Diego de Castilla, the dean of the Cathedral of Toledo. El Greco's friendship with Castilla would secure his first large commissions in Toledo. He arrived in Toledo by July 1577, and signed contracts for a group of paintings that was to adorn the church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo in Toledo and for the renowned El Espolio. By September 1579 he had completed nine paintings for Santo Domingo, including The Trinity and The Assumption of the Virgin. These works would establish the painter's reputation in Toledo.
El Greco did not plan to settle permanently in Toledo, since his final aim was to win the favor of Philip and make his mark in his court. Indeed, he did manage to secure two important commissions from the monarch: Allegory of the Holy League and Martyrdom of St. Maurice. However, the king did not like these works and placed the St Maurice altarpiece in the chapter-house rather than the intended chapel. He gave no further commissions to El Greco. The exact reasons for the king's dissatisfaction remain unclear. Some scholars have suggested that Philip did not like the inclusion of living persons in a religious scene; some others that El Greco's works violated a basic rule of the Counter-Reformation, namely that in the image the content was paramount rather than the style. Philip took a close interest in his artistic commissions, and had very decided tastes; a long sought-after sculpted Crucifixion by Benvenuto Cellini also failed to please when it arrived, and was likewise exiled to a less prominent place. Philip's next experiment, with Federigo Zuccaro was even less successful. In any case, Philip's dissatisfaction ended any hopes of royal patronage El Greco may have had.
Mature works and later years
Immigration to Toledo
Lacking the favor of the king, El Greco was obliged to remain in Toledo, where he had been received in 1577 as a great painter. According to Hortensio Felix Paravicino, a 17th-century Spanish preacher and poet, "Crete gave him life and the painter's craft, Toledo a better homeland, where through Death he began to achieve eternal life." In 1585, he appears to have hired an assistant, Italian painter Francisco Preboste, and to have established a workshop capable of producing altar frames and statues as well as paintings. On March 12, 1586 he obtained the commission for The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, now his best-known work. The decade 1597 to 1607 was a period of intense activity for El Greco. During these years he received several major commissions, and his workshop created pictorial and sculptural ensembles for a variety of religious institutions. Among his major commissions of this period were three altars for the Chapel of San Jose in Toledo (1597-1599); three paintings (1596-1600) for the Colegio de Dona Maria de Aragon, an Augustinian monastery in Madrid, and the high altar, four lateral altars, and the painting St. Ildefonso for the Capilla Mayor of the Hospital de la Caridad (Hospital of Charity) at Illescas (1603-1605). The minutes of the commission of The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception (1607-1613), which were composed by the personnel of the municipality, describe El Greco as "one of the greatest men in both this kingdom and outside it".
Between 1607 and 1608 El Greco was involved in a protracted legal dispute with the authorities of the Hospital of Charity at Illescas concerning payment for his work, which included painting, sculpture and architecture. This and other legal disputes contributed to the economic difficulties he experienced towards the end of his life. In 1608, he received his last major commission: for the Hospital of Saint John the Baptist in Toledo.
El Greco made Toledo his home. Surviving contracts mention him as the tenant from 1585 onwards of a complex consisting of three apartments and twenty-four rooms which belonged to the Marquis de Villena. It was in these apartments, which also served as his workshop, that he passed the rest of his life, painting and studying. He lived in considerable style, sometimes employing musicians to play whilst he dined. It is not confirmed whether he lived with his Spanish female companion, Jeronima de Las Cuevas, whom he probably never married. She was the mother of his only son, Jorge Manuel, born in 1578, who also became a painter, assisted his father, and continued to repeat his compositions for many years after he inherited the studio. In 1604, Jorge Manuel and Alfonsa de los Morales gave birth to El Greco's grandson, Gabriel, who was baptized by Gregorio Angulo, governor of Toledo and a personal friend of the artist.
During the course of the execution of a commission for the Hospital Tavera, El Greco fell seriously ill, and a month later, on April 7, 1614, he died. A few days earlier, on March 31, he had directed that his son should have the power to make his will. Two Greeks, friends of the painter, witnessed this last will and testament (El Greco never lost touch with his Greek origins). He was buried in the Church of Santo Domingo el Antigua. (From Wikipedia)
Source http://www.el-greco-foundation.org/
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